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PRINCETON  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINJIRY 


Professor  }ierkvy  van  Dyke,  D.D.,  IiIi.D. 


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in  2015 


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THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH 

AND 

RUSSIAN  DISSENT 

COMPRISING 

ORTHODOXY,  DISSENT,  AND  ERRATIC  SECTS 


BT  / 

ALBERT  F.  HEARD 

FORMERLY  CONSCL-GESERAL  FOR  RUSSIA  AT  SHANGnAI 


HARPER  & 


NEW  YORK 
BROTHERS,  FRANKLIN 
1887 


SQUARE 


Copyright,  1887,  by  Harper  k  Brothers. 


All  rights  reserved. 


PREFACE. 


In  the  following  pages  I  have  given  a  consecutive  ac- 
count of  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia,  commencing 
with  its  origin  and  history,  then  investigating  its  pres- 
ent condition  and  that  of  its  clergy,  tracing  the  causes 
and  consequences  of  the  schism  Avhich  arose  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  still  continues,  and  finally  examining 
the  innumerable  sects  springing  from  the  schismatic 
movement,  or  from  the  inherent  devotional  character 
of  the  people.  A  work  of  this  nature,  without  any 
pretence  of  theological  erudition,  and  intended  for  the 
general  reader,  does  not,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
ascertain,  exist,  and  I  have  endeavored  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  I  have  been  compelled  to  seek  information 
from  many  sources,  and  a  list  of  the  authorities  I  have 
consulted  is  appended ;  but  for  a  view  of  the  Church  and 
the  clergy,  and  of  the  various  sects,  as  they  are  at  pres- 
ent known,  I  have  followed  and  borrowed  freely  from 
the  interesting  and  able  articles  of  M.  Anatole  Leroy- 
Beaulieu,  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  This  distin- 
guislicd  writer  has  treated,  in  a  thoroughly  philosophic 
spirit,  the  complex  institutions  of  Russia ;  and,  if  I  may 
judge  by  my  own  experience,  derived  from  a  long  resi- 
dence among  Russians,  and  by  the  testimony  of  Russians 


iv 


PREFACE. 


of  eminence,  he  is  entitled  to  rank  highest  among  for- 
eign authorities  on  the  subject. 

I  speak  advisedly  above  of  the  2)resent  state  of  infor- 
mation upon  the  religious  question,  especially  as  regards 
the  masses  of  the  people,  among  whom,  chiefly,  devotional 
feeling  and  sectarianism  flourish.  They  are  frequently 
unable  to  give  intelligible  explanations  of  their  religious 
beliefs,  even  when  willing  to  do  so ;  and  generally,  with 
Asiatic  dislike  of  strangers,  or  with  suspicious  distrust 
of  their  own  superiors,  generated  by  centuries  of  serf- 
dom, they  evade  every  attempt  at  inquiry.  Moreover, 
it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the  internal  condition  of 
the  Kussian  Empire  has  received  from  Eussians  them- 
selves the  investigation  and  study  which  its  importance 
demands,  and  it  may  yet  be  long  before  it  can  be  safely 
averred  that  the  religious  question,  any  more  than  others 
of  a  poHtical  nature,  is  fully  understood  and  appreciatal. 

Loyalty  to  the  Tsar,  and  aptitude  for  organisation,  are 
universal  among  the  jxiople,  but  religious  devotion  is 
their  strongest  and  m.ost  general  characteristic ;  in  no 
country  is  it  so  universally  and  so  intimately  interwoven 
in  the  daily  life  of  every  individual.  Wars  against  the 
infidel  Turk  excite  the  same  enthusiasm  as  the  crusades 
of  the  Middle  Ages ;  and  the  intensity  of  this  feeling, 
together  with  the  pious  credulity  of  the  people,  are  a 
prodigious  power  in  the  hands  of  the  government,  that 
may  be  easily  directed  in  furtherance  of  political  ends. 

"  It  is  for  Christ  that  we  are  to  fight,"  a  ])easant  was 
heard  to  say  to  a  fellow-conscript  in  1877.  "  He  suffered 
on  the  cross  for  us,  and  it  is  but  right  that  we  should 
suffer,  in  our  turn,  for  Him." 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  1. 

The  Separation  of  the  Churches  of  the  East  and  the  West;  the  Causes, 


Political  and  Ecclesiastical.  —  Diilereuces  between  the  Churches, 
External  and  Internal  Page  1 

CHAPTER  II. 

Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Russia   13 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Russian  Church  from  its  Establishment  to  its  Independence  of 
Constantinople. — The  Unia  and  the  Orthodox  Church  in  Poland  ; 
Separation  of  the  Latter  from  the  Church  in  Russia  22 

CHAPTER  IV. 


The  Church  in  the  Fifteenth  Centurj'. — Effect  of  Tatar  Occupation. — 
Liberation  of  Russia  from  the  Tatars. — Attempted  Reforms  in  the 
Church. — The  Orthodox  Church  in  Poland. — Establishment  of  the 


Patriarchate  in  Russia   39 

CHAPTER  V. 

Boris  Godounov. — The  Church  in  Poland. — Peter  Mogila. — Liberation 
of  Russia  from  the  Poles. — Philaret. — Alexis. — Nikon  and  his  Re- 
forms.— Dissent   05 


CHAPTER  YI. 

Reunion  of  the  Polish  to  the  Russian  Church. — Dissent. — Peter  the 
Great  and  his  Successors. — Subslitution  of  the  Holy  Synod  for  the 
Patriarchate. — Absorption  of  the  Unia  by  the  Russian  Church. — Re- 
forms  Ill 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Influence  of  the  Religious  Element;  its  Development. — National 
Character  of  the  Church ;  its  Isolation. — Differences  from  Catholic 
and  Protestant  Churches. — Popes. — Development  of  Church  and 
State  in  Russia. — Church  Government  Page  137 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Clergy,  Black  and  White. — Monasticism  and  Monasteries. — Par- 
ish Priests   160 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Raskol. — Early  Heresies. — Attempted  Reforms  in  Church.— Nikon. 
— Peter  the  Great. — The  Popovtsi  and  the  Bezpopovtsi. — Political 
Aspect  of  the  Raskol   179 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  Raskol,  Socially  and  Politically.— Praobrajenski  and  Rogojski. — 
Organization  of  Popovtsism  and  Bezpopovtsism. — Attempts  at  Rec- 
onciliation with  the  Church. — The  Ediuovertsi. — Modification  of  the 


Raskol ;  its  Extreme  Sects   208 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Sects  not  belonging  to  the  Raskol. — Mj-stical  and  Rationalistic  Sects. 
— Erratic  Sects. — Recent  Sects. — Vitality  of  Sectarian  Spirit. — Atti- 
tude of  Government  towards  Dissent   250 

Index  299 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  CONSULTED. 


Barry,  H  Russia  in  1870.    London,  1871. 

Burnet,  G  History  of  His  Own  Times.   London,  1809. 

j  History  of  Catherine  IL,  Empress  of  Russia. 

^^^^^^'•^  (    London,  1800. 

j  Account  of  Russian  Discoveries,  etc.  Lon- 
" (    don,  1803. 
Custine,  A. ,  Marquis  de . . .  La  Russia  cn  1839.    Bruxelles,  1843. 

Delaveau,  H  In  Z«  Ikvue  des  Deux  Monde«.  Paris,  1858. 

Dixon,  W.  H  Free  Russia.    New  York,  1870. 

Fleury,  C,  et  Fabre,  J.  C.  .Ilistoire  Ecclesiastique.  Paris,  1722-1738. 
Fletcher,  Giles,  and  \       {  A  Treatise  on  the  Russian  Commonwealth. 

[  . . .  ]  1588. 
Horsey,  Sir  Jerome  )      '  Travels  of.  1591. 

Two  books  in  one,  entitled  "Russia  at 
<  the  Close  of  the  XVI.  Century,"  edited 

by  E.  A.  Bond  for  the  Ilakluyt  Society. 
London,  185G. 

Foy  de  la  Neufville  An  Account  of  Muscovy  as  it  was  in  1689. 

Freeman,  E.  A  In  Edinburgh  Iteview,  vol.  cvii. 

„  ,      ^  (  The  Russian  Clergy,  translated  by  C.  du  G. 

Gagarin,  Father  J  ,  ^     ^  io~o 

°  (     Makepeace.    London,  18.2. 

,  I  The  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 

Gibbon,  E  ]    „        „     .       ,     ,     . ^..^ 

(     Roman  Empire.    London,  li97. 

Gurowski,  A.  G.  de  Russia  as  it  is.    New  York,  18r)4. 

Ilapgood,  I.  F  The  Epic  Songs  of  Russia.  New  York,  1886. 

Hare,  A.  J.  C  Studies  in  Russia.    London,  1885. 

Ilakluyt,  R  Collection  of  Voyages.  London,  1809-1812. 

(  The  Russian  Empire,  translated  by  R.  Farie. 
Ilaxthauscn,  A.  von  Lq^Iop  js^g 

t  Ilistoire  de  L'Empire  de  Russic  traduite 

Kararasin,  N.  M  -j    par  JI.  51.  St.  Thomas  et  Jauffrct.  Paris, 

(  1819-182G. 

Kelly,  W.  K  History  of  Russia.    London,  1854. 


viii 


UST  OF  BOOKS  CONSULTED, 


Lc"-er  L  (CyrilleetMe 
°   '  (    des  Slaves 


■rr-      T  n  <  The  Kites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Greek 

iVlDSr,  J.  (jr  ■( 

(    Church  in  Russia.    London,  1772. 

Kohl,  J.  G  Russia  and  the  Russians.    London,  1842. 

T  (  Studies  in  Church  History.  Philadelphia, 

^'^'"•^  (  1869. 

etliode.  Etude  sur  la  Conversion 
Paris,  1868. 

T              1-      A  i  In  La  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  Paris,  1873- 

Leroy-Beauheu,  A  |  igso 

Levesque,  P.  C  Ilistoire  dc  la  Russie.    Paris,  1812. 

T,,      .     ,T,  ^  ■     , ,       (  Travels  Written  by  Paul  of  Aleppo,  trans- 
Slacarius  (Patriarch) . . . .  \    ,     ,  .    ^  ^,  ^  , ,         ^     ,   '  „„„ 
'       (    lated  by  F.  C.  Balfour.    London,  1829. 

Jlcrimee,  P  Les  Faux  Demetrius.    Paris,  1853. 

(  Louis  XL  et  Charles  le  Teraeraire.  Paris, 

^^'^^'^^^'■J ]  1854. 

,  (  Exposition  of  the  Orthodox  Faith  of  the 

JVIo^^iIa,  1  ctor  - 

°    '  I    Eastern  Church.    Published  about  1750. 

,  .     ,  T  (  Ecclesiastical  History,  translated  by  A.  Mac- 

]\Iosheim,  J.  L  \    ,  .       ^     ,      ,  -L ' 

(     lau'C.    London,  1/(4. 

•  J.  1  -.T  (  History  of  the  Clmrch  of  Russia,  translated 

Mouravief.A.N  \    by  R  W.  Blackmore.    O.xford,  1842. 

,    ,  ^  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church.  Lon- 

 \    don,  1850-1857. 

( General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion 

Neander,  A  j    and  the  Church,  translated  by  J.  \V.  Tor- 

(    rey.    London,  1853. 
„  j  La  Chronique  de,  traduite  par  L.  Paris. 

i     Paris.  1834. 

Noble,  E  The  Russian  Revolt.    Boston,  1885. 

/  The  Patriarch  and  the  Tsar;  the  Replies  of 
Palmer,  W  \    Nikon  translated  by  W.  Palmer.  Lon- 

(    don,  1871. 

j  Dissertations  on  the  Orthodo.Y  or  Eastern 

(     Communions.    London,  1853. 
'  \  The  Fall  of  Constantinople.    New  York, 

^'^^'''■^  (  1886. 

(  Present  State  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Russia, 
Platon,  L  \    translated  bj'  R.  Pinkerton.    New  York, 

(  1815. 

"     "  Histoire  de  L'Eglise  Russe. 

Ralston,  W.  R.  S  Songs  of  the  Russian  People.  London,  1872. 

Rambaud,  A  Histoire  de  la  Russie.   Paris,  1878. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  CONSULTED. 


ix 


j  Anonyme.  Essai  sur  Ics  Sectes  religieuses 
^^'^0^'  Le  •■■  (    en  Russie.    Paris,  1878. 

j  Sketches  of  the  Rites  aud  Ceremonies  of  the 

Romanof.  H.  C  ^     Greco-Russian  Church.    London,  1868. 

Schnitzler,  J.  11  Lcs  Institutions  de  la  Russie.    Paris,  1856. 

j  Secret  History  of  the  Court  of  Ru.ssia.  Lon- 

 (    don,  1847. 

„  ,     ,     ^  \  Peter  the  Great,  Emperor  of  Russia.  Xew 

^^^^y^^''^  \    York,  1884. 

„     ,      .  _  (  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Eastern 

^^^^^^J'^-^  ]     Church.    London.  1861. 

Stepniak  (Pseudonym). . .  .Russia  under  the  Tsars.    New  York,  1885. 

"  "         ...  .The  Russian  Storm-Cloud.    London,  1886. 

Strahl,  P.,  and  }  j  Geschichte  des  Russischen  Staates.  Ham- 

Herman,  E.     ) (    burg,  1832-1866. 

Ternaux-Compans  Archives  des  Voyages,  vol.  ii.  Paris,  1840-41. 

r  Vicissitudes  de  L'Eglise  Catholique  des 
Theiner,  A  -j    Deux  Rites  en  Pologne  ct  en  Russie. 

'    Paris,  1843. 

Tooke,  W  History  of  Russia.    London,  1800. 

Vogue,  E.  M.  de  In  La  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  Paris,  1879. 

Voltaire  Qiuvres  ct  Correspondence.  1785. 

Waddington,  G  History  of  the  Church.   London,  1831-1833. 

,,             j  Condition  and  Prospects  of  the  Greek 
(    Church.    London,  1854. 
Wallace,  D.  McK  Russia.   London,  1877. 


THE 

PiUSSIAN  CHUPiCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Separation  of  the  Churches  of  the  East  and  the  "West;  its  Causes, 
Political  and  Ecclesiastical.  —  Differences  between  the  Churches, 
External  and  Internal. 

The  immediate  causes  of  the  great  schism  between 
the  churches  of  the  Ea.st  and  the  West,  in  a.d.  1054, 
were  ecclesiastical  in  their  nature,  but  political  events 
had  material  influence  in  preparing  the  way  for  the 
separation. 

The  partition  of  the  world,  in  a.d.  395,  between  iro- 
norius  and  Arcadius,  aroused  diverse  and  conflicting  in- 
terests  which  had  slumbered  while  the  empire  was  united. 

The  transfer  of  the  capital  from  Rome  to  "Ravenna, 
the  conquest  of  the  West  by  the  barbarians,  and  its  final 
severance  from  the  East,  resulted  in  the  rise  of  papacy 
to  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  power.  It  obtained 
ascendancy  over  half  the  world,  and  claimed  jurisdiction 
over  the  whole. 

The  foundation  of  Constantinople,  the  dismemberment 
of  the  empire,  and  the  complete  separation,  in  a  pohtical 
sense,  of  the  East  from  the  West,  exalted  the  pride  of  the 
patriarch,  and  raised  his  see  to  an  equality  with  that  of 
Rome.  He  as  indignantly  resented  the  pope's  preten- 
sions to  supremacy  as  they  were  vehemently  asserted. 
1 


2  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


During  these  centuries  of  incessant  struggle  great 
changes  supervened  in  the  character  and  constitution  of 
the  two  Churches. 

In  the  West  the  theocratic  element  became  predom- 
inant ;  the  Church,  left  to  its  own  resources,  learned  to 
suflBce  for  itself.  It  gave,  instead  of  asking,  protection, 
grasped  the  sceptre  of  absent  emperors,  and  successfully 
established  its  dominion  over  kings  and  princes. 

In  the  East  the  Church,  shielded  from  harm  by  the 
State,  remained  subservient  to  civil  authority,  rai*ely  in- 
terfered in  political  affairs,  and  Avas  content  with  its  own 
spiritual  jurisdiction. 

The  persistent  pretensions  of  Rome,  the  constant  an- 
tagonism, the  frequent  Avars,  the  incessant  conflicts  to 
which  they  gave  rise,  were  accompanied  by  differences 
of  dogma  and  of  discipline.  These  served  to  further  em- 
bitter the  struggle,  to  render  the  contest  more  implaca- 
ble, and  to  make  reconciliation  or  harmony  impossible. 

Disputes  arose  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  as  to 
the  date  and  celebration  of  Easter.  The  heresy  of  Arius, 
at  first,  and  for  a  time,  accepted  in  the  East,  but  con- 
demned in  the  West,  folloAved  in  the  fourth  century. 
In  the  seventh,  discussion  as  to  the  double  or  single  nat- 
ure of  Christ  convulsed  the  Christian  Avorld.  The  mono- 
theletian  patriarchs  and  the  dyotheletian  popes  mutually 
anathematized  each  other,  until  unity  was  restored  by 
the  Sixth  Oecumenical  Council,  a.d.  680  to  691.  Then 
came  the  great  controversy  on  the  subject  of  image  Avor- 
ship,  Avhich  raged  Avith  intense  virulence  for  a  century 
and  a  half. 

MeauAvhile  another  grave  subject  of  dispute  arose, 
which  still  constitutes  the  essential  dogmatical  differ- 
ence between  the  Churches.  The  doctrine  of  the  Double 
Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  oi'iginatcd  in  Spain  during 


SEPARATION  OF  THE  CHURCHES-EAST  AND  WEST.  3 


the  fifth  century.  From  Spain  it  spread  into  France, 
was  accepted  by  Charlemagne  and  the  Council  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  a.d.  809,  and  finally,  approved  at  Eome,  be- 
came an  obligatory  article  of  belief  throughout  the  West. 
The  Greek  Church  obstinately  adhered  to  the  old  faith 
and  letter  of  the  creed.  It  absolutely  rejected  the  Double 
Procession,  and  both  parties  appealed  to  the  records  of 
oecumenical  councils.  The  interpolation  of  the  words 
"fiho-que,"  in  the  creed  established  by  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  in  a.d.  381,  was  detected.  Nevertheless 
the  Latin  Church  maintained  the  dogma,  while  the  Greek 
persisted  in  denying  it. 

The  seventh  general  council,  convened  at  Nicaea  in 
A.D.  TS7,  is,  in  the  estimation  of  the  Eastern  Church,  the 
last  oecumenical  council.  It  completed,  by  its  decrees,  the 
entire  body  of  doctrine  of  the  Universal  Church  of  Christ. 
By  it  unity  was  apparently  restored,  and  in  outward  ap- 
pearance the  ecclesiastical  fabric  was  then  one  and  indi- 
visible. The  innumerable  shades  and  difi"erences  of  opin- 
ion within  it  were  indiscriminately  distributed  through 
the  wliole  mass.  Sects  and  denominations  abounded, 
with  nmtual  denunciations  and  revilings ;  but  no  schism, 
properly  so  called,  arrayed  any  great  geographical  divi- 
sion of  the  world  in  open  religious  hostility  to  the  others. 

In  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  the  em])cror, 
Michael  III.,  deposed  the  patriarch  Ignatius  for  daring 
to  rebuke  the  licentiousness  of  the  court,  and  named 
Photius  in  his  stead.  The  new  prelate  was  a  man  of 
unimpeachal)le  character,  commanding  genius,  and  vast 
ambition.  He  excelled  in  theological  erudition,  but,  as 
he  was  a  layman,  his  appointment  v.-as  irregular.  Ignar 
tins  appealed  to  Nicholas  I.,  Pope  of  Rome,  who  was  glad 
of  the  opportunity  to  assert  his  right  of  interference. 
He  anathematized  Photius,  and  endeavored  to  reinstate 


4 


THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


Ignatius.  Photius,  undisturbed,  retaliated  upon  Nicholas 
his  sentence  of  deposition  and  excommunication,  and 
widened  the  field  of  controversy  by  making  aj^peal  to 
the  whole  Christian  world.  In  a  circular  letter,  addressed 
to  his  brother  patriarchs,  he  formally  charged  the  Roman 
Church  with  five  distinct  heresies,  and  formulated  the 
differences  dividing  the  Churches.    He  declared : 

That  the  Romish  Church  erroneously  fasted  on  the 
Sabbath,  or  seventh  day  of  the  Aveek. 

That  in  the  first  week  of  Lent  it  wrongfully  permitted 
the  use  of  milk  and  of  food  prepared  from  milk. 

That,  contrary  to  Scripture,  it  prohibited  priests  from 
marrying,  and  separated  from  their  wives  such  as  were 
married  when  they  took  orders. 

That  it  uncanonically  authorized  bishops,  only,  to 
anoint  baptized  persons  with  the  Holy  Chrism,  Avithhold- 
ing  tlaat  authority  from  presbyters. 

That  it  had  sacrilegiously  interpolated  the  words  "  filio- 
que "  in  the  creed  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  and 
held  the  heretical  doctrine  of  the  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  from  the  Son  and  from  the  Father. 

To  arid  discussions,  characterized  by  the  bitterness 
and  rancor  of  religious  fanaticism,  were  added  fierce  con- 
tentions on  either  side  for  increased  jurisdiction,  aroused 
by  the  addition  to  the  see  of  Constantinople  of  Bulgaria 
and  other  provinces,  conquered  by  Greek  armies  and 
converted  by  Greek  missionaries. 

That  the  final  schism  should  have  been  delayed  must 
be  attributed,  not  merely  to  the  ])ious  horror  which  so 
direful  an  event  would  have  inspired,  but  to  the  pecuMar 
condition  of  the  Greek  Empire  and  Church.  There  was, 
within  the  empire,  a  continual  struggle  for  power,  with 
constantly  fluctuating  success,  between  contending  par- 
ties, and  which,  from  the  intimate  connection  of  State 


SEPARATION  OF  THE  CHURCHES-EAST  AND  WEST.  5 

and  Church,  affected  both.  Photius  and  Ignatius  were 
alternately  deposed  and  reinstated.  A  submissive  clergy 
bent  to  the  nod  of  the  sovereign,  and  venal  bishops  hailed 
or  condemned  one  prelate  after  another  at  command. 
The  pope  was  appealed  to  in  turn  by  the  contending 
factions,  and  flattered  by  delusive  hopes ;  in  reality  his 
pretensions  were  hateful  to  them  all,  and  he  was  but  a 
tool  in  the  hands  of  the  astute  Greeks,  to  be  availed  of 
when  needed,  and  to  be  denied  when  he  claimed  his 
reward. 

Amid  these  internal  dissensions,  these  alternate  appeals 
to,  and  rejection  of,  Eomish  intervention,  a  species  of 
armed  neutrality,  of  impending,  yet  deferred  hostility, 
seemed  to  pervade  the  Churches,  and  the  final  catastro- 
phe, though  ever  threatening,  was  ever  postponed. 

A  fresh  subject  of  theological  discussion  arose  early 
in  the  eleventh  century,  regarding  the  use  of  leavened  or 
unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist.  The  Greeks  adhered 
to  the  custom  of  the  primitive  Church  and  condemned 
the  Latins,  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  had  substituted 
unleavened  for  leavened  bread. 

Michael  Ccrularius,  the  patriarch,  was  a  prelate  as  big- 
oted as  he  w^as  zealous.  Chafing  against  the  preten- 
sions of  the  pope,  and  resenting  his  oft-renewe<l  assump- 
tion of  superiority,  he  seized  upon  this  occasion  to  make 
a  violent  attack  upon  the  Latin  Church  and  its  chief. 
He  proclaimed  their  apostasy  from  the  true  faith,  ordered 
their  churches  and  monasteries  in  Constantinople  to  be 
closed,  and  prohibited  the  celebration  of  their  service. 
Ketaliatory  measures  followed  in  the  West.  A  final  ef- 
fort was  made  by  the  emperor,  Constantine  Monomachus, 
to  restore  harmony.  At  his  request.  Pope  Leo  IX.  sent 
delegates  to  Constantinople  with  power  to  adjust  all 
matters  of  controversy ;  but  the  haughty  patriarch,  in- 


G  THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ccnsecl  at  the  lofty  tone  assumed  by  tliem  as  ambassadors 
of  Rome,  refused  to  admit  them  to  his  ])resence.  The 
papal  legates,  filled  with  a  sense  of  the  august  authority 
of  their  chief,  boldly  resented  the  indignity  offered  him 
in  their  persons.  Eesorting  to  the  great  Church  of  St, 
Sophia,  they  publicly  excommunicated  the  patriarch  and 
his  adherents,  and  reverently  deposited  tlie  written  declar- 
ation of  anathema  u])on  the  grand  altar.  By  this  solemn 
act  the  schism  between  the  Churches  was  finally  consum- 
mated on  the  10th  of  June,  a.d.  1054. 

The  points  of  difference,  besides  minor  matters  of  prac- 
tice and  discipline,  may  be  summarized  as  being  those 
stated  in  the  circular  letter  of  Photius,  to  Avhich  are  to 
be  added  the  use  of  leavened  or  unleavened  bread  in  the 
Eucharist  and  the  question  of  papal  supremacy.  The 
most  important,  as  involving  fundamental  principles, 
Avas  that  concerning  the  Double  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  most  potent  and  wide-spread  in  its  influence 
Avas  that  regarding  Pome's  pretension  to  universal  juris- 
diction. It  has  ever  been  the  chief  obstacle  at  every 
attempt  to  restore  unity.  This  point  the  popular  mind, 
however  bewildered  on  theological  controversies,  has 
always  been  able  to  appreciate,  and  by  it  popular  indig- 
nation has  always  been  easily  aroused  to  support  clerical 
or  state  authority. 

The  divergence  of  the  two  Churches  was  greater  in 
reality  than  it  appears  to  be  from  a  superficial  view.  It 
was  based  on  essential  variations  in  the  character  and 
disposition  of  the  people  in  the  East  and  in  the  "West, 
on  the  nature  of  their  civilization,  and  on  the  different, 
almost  antagonistic,  development  of  the  Christian  idea 
Ia  one  Church  and  in  the  other. 

These  influences,  profoundly  affecting  the  character 
and  constitution  of  the  Greek  Church,  merit  consider- 


DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  CHURCHES.  7 

ation  from  the  consequences  which  have  ensued  and 
which  are  still  perceptible.  They  aid  in  appreciating 
the  attitude  of  the  Russian  Church,  as  chief  exponent 
and  representative  of  the  Greek  communion,  towards 
other  Christian  denominations ;  and  they  also  help  to 
explain  the  dissensions  which,  in  Eussia,  have  arisen 
within  its  bosom. 

The  natural  bent  of  the  Greek  mind  was  to  speculative 
inquiry ;  it  was  more  active  and  acute,  more  lively  and 
less  practical,  easily  swayed  by  and  interested  in  scholas- 
tic disquisition  and  controversy,  fond  of  argument  for 
argument's  sake,  skilled  in  disputation,  nice  in  definitions 
and  distinctions.  The  East  was  the  home  and  fountain- 
head  of  science  and  literature ;  the  cultivation  of  letters 
was  there  carried  to  a  far  greater  extent  and  held  in 
higher  estimation  than  in  the  "West.  The  Greeks  "were 
vain  of  their  superior  learning  and  more  polite  culture ; 
they  looked  down  Avith  supercilious  contempt  upon  the 
outer  world  as  mere  barbarians ;  they  felt  jiride  in  their 
inheritance  of  the  wisdom  and  intellect  of  ancient  Greece, 
and  gloried  in  their  language,  formed  and  fashioned  by 
sages  and  philosophers,  as  the  only  competent  vehicle  of 
elevated  refined  thought ;  in  it  Christ  taught,  the  apos- 
tles and  early  fathers  preached  and  Avrote ;  the  first 
heads  of  the  Church  were  Greek,  and  the  name  of  pope 
was  Greek.  The  Eastern  Church  rejoiced  in  its  direct 
affiliation  with  apostolic  times,  in  its  careful  preservation 
of  traditions,  and  was  convinced  of  its  especial  right  to 
be  considered  the  true  heir  and  successor  of  Christ. 

Intellectual  and  moral  progress  in  the  East  was,  how- 
ever, stifled  by  political  and  spiritual  despotism  when  the 
seat  of  empire  was  established  at  Constantinople,  and 
the  Church  came  under  the  immediate  protection  and 
control  of  the  State.    With  Christian  emperors  on  the 


8  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

throne  it  no  longer  feared  persecution,  and,  relying  on 
the  temporal  power,  it  gradually  fell  into  subjection  and 
tutelage,  a  condition  fatal  to  its  true  development :  it 
submitted  to  the  encroachments  of  imperial  authority ; 
human  passions  proved  stronger  than  religious  convic- 
tions, and  its  patriarchs  and  prelates,  eager  for  advance- 
ment, appealed  to  the  emperor  in  their  mutual  quarrels 
and  contentions,  striving  by  subserviency  and  com])liance 
to  conciliate  his  favor.  The  theocratic  theory  of  its  in- 
dependence of  principalities  and  ])owers  gradually  juelded 
to  servility  and  dependence ;  civil  authority  became  para; 
mount  over  the  Church,  influenced  or  dictated  its  decrees, 
and  was  the  supreme  judge  and  arbiter  of  its  destinies. 
Spiritual  life  Avithin  it  became  dead,  and  its  religion  de- 
generated to  scholastic  investigation  and  metaphysical 
disquisition  on  barren  points  of  doctrinal  belief ;  its  in- 
tellectual activity,  though  great  and  in  constant  exercise, 
wasted  its  ingenuity  and  energy  on  the  study  of  the 
historical,  exegetical,  dogmatical  side  of  Christianity, 
and  neglected  the  practical  application  of  its  precepts  to 
the  daily  life  and  conduct  of  men.  The  fathers  were 
busy  in  establishing  precise  definitions,  in  collecting  and 
transmitting  to  posterity  the  lore  and  learning  of  the 
past,  augmented  and  explained  by  their  comments,  rather 
than  in  endeavoring  to  improve  humanity  in  the  present ; 
nor  was  this  disputatious  spirit  peculiar  to  dignitaries  of 
the  Church,  it  pervaded  all  classes  of  society;  in  the 
words  of  Gregory  Xazianzen,  "  this  city  is  full  of  me- 
chanics and  slaves,  who  are  all  of  them  profound  theo- 
logians, and  preach  in  the  shops  and  in  the  streets.  If 
you  ask  a  man  to  change  a  piece  of  silver,  he  informs 
you  wherein  the  Son  difi'ers  from  the  Father ;  if  you  de- 
mand the  price  of  a  loaf,  you  are  told  by  way  of  rc])ly 
that  the  Son  is  inferior  to  the  Father ;  and  if  you  inquire 


DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  CHURCHES. 


9 


whether  the  bath  is  read}',  the  answer  is  that  the  Son 
was  made  out  of  nothing." ' 

The  letter  of  the  law  superseded  the  spirit ;  rehgion 
stiffened  into  formalism ;  piety  consisted  in  strict  observ- 
ance of  ceremonial  rites ;  external  holiness  rej^laced  sin- 
cere and  heartfelt  devotion. 

The  Church  eagerly  embraced  the  idea  of  monastic 
discipline,  and  nionasticism  exercised  profound  influence 
upon  its  destinies ;  but  in  this  element  of  Christian  life 
the  tendency  was  the  same :  convents  became  the  seats 
of  mystical  theology,  of  refined  speculations  on  abstruse 
points  of  doctrine ;  penances,  mortification  of  the  flesh, 
worship  of  images  and  symbols,  were  spiritualized  and 
raised  far  above  the  comprehension  of  the  ignorant,  who 
could  grasp  only  the  outward  and  material  expression, 
and,  bhndly  following  their  teachers,  were  plunged  into 
the  grossest,  most  superstitious,  and  idolatrous  practices. 

Delight  in  discussion,  fondness  for  dialectic  controver- 
sy and  mental  gymnastics,  led  to  the  development  of  in- 
herent Aveaknesses  of  the  Greek  character — insincerit}'', 
fickleness,  and  disregard  of  truth.  In  keen  but  unscru- 
pulous emulation  sophistry  became  a  justifiable  weapon 
when  reason  failed ;  falsehood  and  deception  were  plied 
without  hesitation  to  compass  success.  Amid  the  gen- 
eral degradation  manly  virtues  disappeared  from  among 
the  people.  Instead  of  courageously  resisting  invasion, 
the  empire  purchased  safety  from  barbarians,  whom  it 
despised,  but  with  whom  it  dared  not  cope ;  the  Church, 
in  common  with  the  community,  suffered  from  these  de- 
basing influences,  and  sank  into  spiritual  apathy.  It 
became  stationary,  or,  as  it  claimed,  and  still  pretends  to 
be,  immutable  and  orthodox. 


'  Gibbon,  vol.  v.,  p.  17. 


10         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Throughout  the  "West  tlie  tendency  was  in  a  contrary 
direction — towards  the  practical  a])])Hcation  of  the  re- 
hgious  idea.  The  effete,  worn-out  civilization  of  the 
past  was  there  renovated  by  contact  and  admixture  with 
young  and  vigorous  races,  and  gained  new  strength  and 
vitality  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  The  Church,  freed 
from  control,  became  independent  and  self -asserting ;  the 
responsibility  of  government,  the  ])reservation  of  social 
order,  devolved  upon  it,  and  it  rose  proudly  to  the  task ; 
it  subdued  and  conquered  by  the  Word  the  fierce  ISTorth- 
ern  tribes  whom  the  State  was  powerless  to  resist ;  by  its 
spiritual  dominion  over  them  it  exalted  its  station  and 
increased  its  influence ;  popes  grasped  the  sceptre  of  ab- 
sent emperors,  and  assumed  their  authority ;  they  had 
no  rival  prelates  to  dispute  their  claims,  and  the  Western 
Church  was  united  under  their  sway.  What  imperial 
Rome  lost,  papal  Ro)ne  gained ;  it  Avas  willing  and  able 
to  protect  itself  and  the  people  who  gathered  around  it ; 
its  independence  of  the  civil  power  fostered  and  en- 
couraged the  theocratic  element  Avhich  had  disa])peared 
from  the  Eastern  Church  ;  the  assertion  of  its  divine 
origin  and  prerogatives  raised  it  to  be  a  judge  and  arbiter 
between  princes,  and  established  its  superiority  over  tem- 
poral rulers ;  its  army  of  priests  and  monks,  filled  with 
devotional  zeal,  instead  of  resting  content  with  spirit- 
ual abstractions  and  contemplative  self-communion,  went 
forth  boldly  as  a  Church  militant,  trusting  in  their  sacred 
mission  to  overcome  by  preaching  and  example  the  ene- 
mies of  the  faith.  Mere  learning,  polemical  discussions, 
scholastic  and  theological  controversies,  were  secondary 
considerations  amid  the  dislocations  of  a  falling  empire 
and  the  reconstruction  of  new  states,  and  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  The  monastic  establishments  of  the  Cliurch 
were  organized  to  fight  error,  to  propagate  the  truth,  and 


DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  CHURCHES.  H 

to  enlarge  its  domain,  not  for  indulgence  in  polite  ease 
or  literary  culture,  nor  for  the  satisfaction  of  individual 
aspirations  towards  an  ideal  life  by  asceticism  and  morti- 
fication of  the  flesh  ;  they  undertook  Avorks  of  active 
piety,  benevolence,  and  charity,  and  their  inmates  were 
inspired  by  the  desire  to  accomplish  good  for  others 
rather  than  for  themselves.  The  religious  orders  were 
instituted  for  divers  ends,  Avith  definite  and  varying  pur- 
pose. A  spirit  of  rivalry  and  emulation  among  them 
grew  with  increase  of  power  and  wealth,  and,  while 
acknowledging  a  single  head  and  pursuing  a  common 
object,  the  keen  struggle  for  pre-eminence  kept  ahve 
within  them  the  fervor  of  religious  enthusiasm.  From 
the  supreme  pontiff  to  the  mendicant  friar  action  and 
progress  were  the  characteristics  of  the  Church,  and 
blind  adoration  for  the  past  was  forgotten  in  anxiety 
for  the  present  and  hope  for  the  future ;  Avhile  recogniz- 
ing ancient  authority  and  tradition,  it  believed  in  a  con- 
stantly increasing  and  more  thorough  comprehension  of 
Christ's  teachings,  and  of  the  essential  nature  of  Christian 
doctrines  to  be  attained  by  study  and  gradually  revealed. 
Its  restless  activity,  exercised  in  this  direction,  saved  it 
from  the  fonnalism  of  the  East,  and  preserved  the  energy 
of  its  spiritual  life ;  from  progressive  it  became  aggres- 
sive ;  victorious  over  the  "West,  its  ambition  was  insatia- 
ble, and  it  looked  for  other  worlds  to  conquer ;  it  aimed 
at  universal  dominion,  and  claimed  to  be,  not  merely 
orthodox,  but  catholic. 


CHAPTER  II. 


Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Russia. 

The  power  and  dignity  of  the  Church  in  the  East 
were  doomed  to  dwindle  and  decrease  Avith  the  waning 
glories  of  the  lower  empire.  Its  patriarchs  were  to  be- 
come mere  puppets  of  court  favor,  nominees  and  syco- 
phants of  an  infidel  sovereign ;  but  brighter  destinies 
and  renewed  splendor  awaited  it  in  other  climes.  From 
the  dwarfed  and  puny  shoitlders  of  the  effeminate  Greek 
its  mantle  Avas  to  fall  on  the  strong  and  stalwart  frame 
of  the  Barbarian ;  enervated  and  lifeless  in  its  ancient 
home,  it  was  to  be  rejuvenated  by  the  bracing  atmosphere 
of  the  North,  and  spring  again  into  fresh  and  j^outhful 
life  in  the  rude,  inhospitable  regions  of  its  later  conquests. 

But  little  is  positively  known  regarding  the  first  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  into  Russia,  although  legends 
and  traditions  abound. 

In  popular  belief,  the  city  of  Novgorod  was  founded 
by  Japhet,  son  of  Noah,  and  thither  St.  Andrew  came  to 
preach  the  gospel.  The  wild  and  barbarous  natives  ridi- 
culed teachings  so  contrary  to  their  fierce  and  savage 
habits.  They  found  amusement  in  tormenting  the  iX])os- 
tle  and  mocking  his  simplicity ;  they  plunged  him,  bound 
with  cords,  into  a  bath  heated  to  the  utmost,  and  the 
saint,  distressed  and  suffocated  by  the  vapor,  exclaimed, 
"  iSpcoaa  "  ("  I  sweat ") ;  hence,  it  is  said,  came  the  name 
of  Roussa,  or  Bussia.  Moved  by  his  patience  and  meek- 
ness, his  rough  hosts  released  him,  listened  to  his  words, 


LEGENDS  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH. 


13 


and  believed.  They  glory  over  all  the  rest  of  the  people 
of  Muscovy  for  being  rooted  in  the  faith  from  ancient 
times,  and  having  been  the  first  to  receive  it. 

Novgorod  is  a  city  of  great  antiquity,  and  its  religious 
edifices  are  held  in  deepest  veneration  by  the  people.  In 
popular  tradition  its  celebrated  monastery  of  St.  Anthony 
the  Great,  or  "  the  Roman,"  ■\vas  founded  by  a  monk  of 
Rome,  ^vho,  during  the  persecution  for  image  worship, 
was  miraculously  borne  upon  a  rock  from  the  Tiber, 
over  seas  and  rivers,  to  Novgorod  on  Lake  Ilraen.  The 
treasures  of  his  convent,  which  he  had  consigned  to  the 
waters,  followed  him  on  his  voyage.  At  Is  ovgorod  he 
found  a  Christian  church,  of  which  St.  Xikita  was  metro- 
politan ;  with  him  Anthony  joined  in  prayer,  and  imme- 
diately a  knowledge  of  each  other's  tongue  was  imparted 
to  them  both.  The  ruler  of  the  city  gave  him  land  for 
a  convent ;  and  his  treasures,  fished  up  from  the  lake, 
provided  sacred  furniture  for  the  altars.  The  boat  of 
stone  still  excites  the  devotion  of  the  worshippers,  and 
the  palm  branches  in  the  chapel  are  still  as  gi'een  as 
when  brought  from  Rome  by  Anthony. 

Of  St.  Nikita  it  is  related  that  he  shut  up  Satan  in  a 
jar,  and  released  him  upon  condition  that  he  would  carry 
him  to  Jerusalem  and  back.  Thus  the  saint  visited  the 
holy  places  of  the  East  in  a  single  night. 

These  ]>ious  legends  generally  bear  impress  of  the 
Oriental  origin  of  the  Church. 

The  Russian  monk,  Xestor,  who  died  in  1110,  relates 
in  his  chronicle  that  St.  Andrew  the  Apostle,  journeying 
by  the  river  Dnieper,  on  his  way  from  Asia  Minor  to 
Rome,  came  to  the  hills  surmounting  the  site  of  the  city 
of  Kiev,  and  on  their  summit,  after  kneeling  in  prayer, 
he  exclaimed  to  his  companions :  "  Behold  this  moun- 
tain, for  it  is  here  that  the  grace  of  God  shaU  shine 


14         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

forth.  A  great  cit}'  shall  arise  on  this  spot,  and  in  it 
the  Lord  shall  have  many  temples  to  His  name." ' 

Byzantine  annalists  record  the  labors  of  St.  Peter  of 
Kiev,  a  Greek  monk  sent  thither  by  the  Emperor  Basil, 
the  Macedonian,  and  who  was,  according  to  them,  the 
first  metropolitan  of  Eussia.  The  heathen  inhabitants 
demanded  proof  of  the  divine  nature  of  his  teachings ; 
to  convince  them  he  passed,  uninjured,  with  the  Gospel 
in  his  hands,  through  a  great  fire  kindled  by  them,  where- 
upon they  all  embraced  the  faith.  He  repeated  the  same 
miracle  among  the  Muscovites,  and  they  also  were  con- 
verted. 

The  patriarch  Photius,  in  a  circular  letter  addressed  to 
the  Eastern  bishops  in  a.d.  8GG,  speaks  of  the  Eussians  as 
having  renounced  their  pagan  superstitions  and  professed 
the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  adds  that  he  has  sent  them 
a  bishop  and  priests. 

In  the  same  year  Oskold  and  Dir,  companions  of  Euric 
and  rulers  of  Kiev,  pursuing  their  quest  for  booty  and 
plunder,  descended  the  Dnieper  and  appeared  before 
Constantinople;  the  city  was  saved  by  the  miraculous 
interposition  of  the  Virgin  ;  her  robe,  a  relic  of  the 
Church  of  Blacherne,  Avas  bathed  in  the  sea,  whereon  a 
furious  tempest  arose  which  dispersed  tlie  hostile  fleet. 
According  to  Greek  chroniclers  the  Eussian  princes, 
struck  with  awe,  abjured  their  heathen  gods  and  em- 
braced Christianity.  These  chroniclers  also  enumerate 
Eussia  as  the  seventieth  archbishopric  depending  on  the 
see  of  Constantinople. 

The  recruitment  of  the  imperial  body-guard  from  the 
Varagians  along  and  beyond  the  Dnieper,  bringing  many 
from  those  regions  under  Christian  influences,  and  the 


La  Cbronique  de  Nestor,  vol.  i.,  p.  G. 


LABORS  OF  ST.  CYRIL  AND  ST.  METHODIUS.  15 

intercourse  between  Russians  and  Greeks,  arising  from 
trade  and  from  frequent  predatory  excursions  of  the  for- 
mer against  the  empire,  doubtless  combined  to  spread 
among  them  some  knowledge  of  Christianity.  Efforts 
for  their  conversion,  attempted  by  emperors  preceding 
Basil  I.,  were  continued  by  him  and  by  his  successors, 
stimulated  by  their  desire,  during  the  struggles  of  the 
Greek  Church  with  Rome,  to  extend  its  sway.  A  treaty, 
concluded  in  9i5,  betAveen  Igur  of  Kiev  and  Constantino 
VII.,  distinguishes  Russians  who  had  been  baptized  from 
those  who  were  3'et  pagans,  and  makes  mention  of  a 
church  at  Kiev,  dedicated  to  St.  Elias. 

From  these  scanty  and  confused  historical  data  it 
would  appear  that  Christianity  had  penetrated  into  Rus- 
sia pi'ior  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century. 

The  conversion  of  the  savage  tribes  who  occupied  the 
vast  deserts  of  Dacia  and  Sarmatia  was  preceded,  and 
the  way  for  it  prepared,  by  the  missionary  labors  of  the 
Greek  Church  along  the  Danube  and  in  the  Chersoncsus. 
Slavonic  tribes,  Avho  had  heard  of  Christ,  applied  to  Con- 
stantinople for  teachers.  Constantino  Cypharas,  a  monk 
better  known  as  St.  Cyril,  was  sent  to  them  by  Michael 
III.  in  860.  He  called  to  his  assistance  his  brother 
Methodius,  and  they  both,  animated  by  true  ai)ostolic 
zeal,  extended  their  mission  to  the  surrounding  ])agans. 
They  invented  a  Slavonic  alphabet,  translated  the  Script- 
ures and  the  Liturgy,  and  celebrated  religious  services 
in  the  language  of  the  people,  according  to  the  rites  of 
the  Greek  Church.  Their  lives  were  devoted  with  single- 
hearted  earnestness  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  and 
the  results  of  their  missionary  efforts  spread  far  l)oyond 
the  sphere  of  their  labors.  They  had  great  inlluence 
upon  the  growth  and  destinies  of  the  Church  in  Russia, 
where  their  translations  of  the  Bible  and  the  Liturgy 


16         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

into  Slavonic  were  subsequently  adopted,  and  their  prac- 
tice of  celebrating  the  service  in  a  language  familiar  to 
the  people  was  followed. 

In  955  Olga,  wife  of  Igur,  ruler  of  Kiev,  mother  of 
Sviatoslav,  and  whom  Nestor  calls  "  the  dawn  and  morn- 
ing-star of  salvation  for  Russia,"  journeyed  to  Constan- 
tinople in  search  of  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and 
was  there  baptized  by  the  name  of  Helena,  in  memory 
of  the  sainted  mother  of  Constantino  the  Great.  The 
humble  creed  and  self-denying  precepts  of  her  ncAv  re- 
ligion were  repugnant  to  the  rude  barbarian,  her  son,  a 
proud  and  haughty  chief  of  fierce  warriors ;  but  he  re- 
spected the  genius  and  virtues  of  his  mother,  who,  ven- 
erated and  loved  by  his  j^eople,  was  surnamed  by  them 
"  the  "Wise."  lie  tolerated  and  protected  the  belief  she 
professed,  and  confided  his  children  to  her  care.  His 
son,  Vladimir,  was  a  kindred  spirit  to  his  own — enter- 
prising and  ambitious,  of  fiery  passions,  strong  and  en- 
thusiastic temperament,  imbued  with  the  sujierstitions 
and  addicted  to  the  gross  and  sensual  indulgences  of  his 
race,  fit  leader  of  hardy  and  rapacious  tribes,  whose  only 
occupation  was  war,  and  whose  pastimes  were  revelry 
and  the  chase.  A  zealous  worshipper  of  idols,  Vladimir 
erected  a  huge  image  of  Peroun,  the  God  of  Thunder, 
and  offered  to  it  human  sacrifices.  To  celebrate  a  victory 
over  a  neighboring  tribe,  lots  were  cast  for  a  victim, 
and  fell  on  Feodor,  son  of  Ivan,  a  Christian  Varagian ; 
the  father  refused  to  yield  him  up,  mocked  the  heathen 
deities  of  wood  and  stone,  and  declared  the  God  of  the 
Greeks  to  be  the  true  and  only  God ;  whereon  the  peo- 
ple massacred  them  both — the  first  and  the  only  martyrs 
of  the  Church  at  Kiev.  Vladimir's  success  in  Avar  spread 
his  renown  abroad ;  his  alUance  was  courted,  and  his 
conversion  became  an  object  of  solicitude  to  nations  near 


CONVERSION  OF  VLADIMIR  AND  IlIS  PEOPLE.  17 

and  remote.  Emissaries  came  to  him  from  the  Mahome- 
tan Bulgarians  and  the  Khorazian  Jews,  from  the  Latin 
Christians  of  Germany  and  Eome,  and  from  the  Greeks 
of  Constantinople.  To  each  of  them  he  returned  a  char- 
acteristic reply.  The  pleasures  of  Mahomet's  paradise 
Avere  tempting,  but  he  refused  to  be  circumcised  or  to 
abstain  from  pork  or  from  wine,  "  for  drinking,"  said  he, 
"  is  the  delight  of  Russians,  nor  can  we  live  without  it." 
Of  the  Jews  he  asked :  "  Where  is  your  country  ?"  and 
when  they  acknowledged  that  for  their  sins  God  had 
driven  them  forth  and  scattered  them  over  the  earth,  he 
indignantly  rejoined,  "  Do  you,  whom  your  God  has  for- 
saken and  dispersed,  pretend  to  teach  others,  and  would 
you  have  us  share  your  fate?"  The  "Western  doctors 
were  dismissed  with  scant  courtesy,  as  coming  from 
troublesome  neighbors ;  "  Our  fathers  have  never  be- 
lieved in  your  religion,"  said  he.  He  listened  more  at- 
tentively to  the  Greek,  who  alternately  aroused  and 
soothed  his  superstitious  fears  by  eloquently  depicting 
the  future  torments  of  the  wicked  and  the  reward  of  the 
righteous,  enforcing  his  Avords  by  pictures  representing 
the  Judgment  Day.  "  Tell  me  more,"  said  Vladimir, 
"  happy  are  those  seated  on  the  right,  wretched  the  sin- 
ners on  the  left."  All  the  mysteries  of  the  Orthodox 
faith  were  explained  ;  he  was  deeply  moved,  and  perhaps 
recalled  the  teaching  of  his  grandmother  Olga.  In  the 
succeeding  year,  987,  by  the  advice  of  his  boyars,  he  sent 
trusty  counsellors  to  examine  in  different  countries  the 
religion  of  each.  At  Constantinople  the  importance  of 
their  mission  Avas  more  seriously  reahzed  than  elsewhere, 
and  every  effort  was  made  by  the  emperor  and  the  pa- 
triarch to  impress  their  imaginations  and  convince  them 
of  the  superiority  of  the  Greek  Church.  They  were 
dazzled  by  the  magnificence  of  the  court,  and  transported 
2 


18         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

by  the  splendor  and  imposing  ceremonies  of  the  ritual. 
"  When  we  stood  in  the  temple,"  said  they,  on  their  re- 
turn, "  we  hardly  knew  whether  or  not  we  were  in  heaven, 
for,  in  truth,  upon  earth  it  is  impossible  to  behold  such 
glory  and  magnificence ;  we  could  not  tell  all  wo  have 
seen ;  there,  verily,  God  has  His  dwelling  among  men, 
and  the  worship  of  other  countries  is  as  nothing.  Never 
can  we  forget  the  grandeur  which  we  saw.  Whoever 
has  enjoyed  so  sweet  a  sight  can  never  elsewhere  be  sat- 
isfied, nor  will  we  remain  longer  as  we  are." '  They  ad- 
duced Olga's  example  as  an  additional  reason  for  adopt- 
ing the  Eastern  faith :  "  If  the  Greek  religion  had  not 
been  good,"  they  urged,  "  thy  grandmother  Olga,  wisest 
of  mortals,  had  not  embraced  it."  Vladimir  still  hesi- 
tated ;  but  when,  in  the  following  year,  his  armies  Avere 
held  in  check  before  the  walls  of  Kherson,  he  made  a 
vow  to  be  baptized  if  he  captured  the  city.  It  fell,  and 
then  the  crafty  prince,  eager  for  every  advantage,  de- 
manded as  a  condition  of  peace  and  of  his  conversion 
the  hand  of  Anna,  sister  of  Basil  II.,  in  marriage,  threat- 
ening otherwise  to  march  on  Constantinople.  An  old 
prophecy  of  unknown  origin  was  current  in  the  tenth 
century  on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  had  been 
inscribed  on  the  statue  of  Bellerophon  within  the  city 
walls,  that  "  the  Russians  would  some  day  seize  upon  the 
capital  of  the  Empire  of  the  East."  It  has  not  yet  been 
forgotten,  and  it  may,  in  those  ancient  days,  have  influ- 
enced the  emperor's  decision.  The  danger  Avas  imminent, 
and  in  order  to  avert  it  and  to  bring  so  poAverful  an  ene- 
my under  the  banner  of  the  cross,  the  haughty  Greek 
consented,  and,  in  spite  of  her  reluctance,  sent  the  Princess 
Anna,  with  a  retinue  of  priests,  to  Ivlierson.    On  her  ar- 


'  Nestor,  vol.  i.,  p.  123. 


CONVERSION  OF  VLADDIIR  AND  HIS  PEOPLE.  19 

rival  she  found  Yladimir  suffering  from  a  sudden  attack 
of  blindness ;  but  when  the  bishop  laid  hands  upon  him 
in  baptism  he  recovered  his  sight  and  exclaimed,  "  Now 
it  is  that  I  know  the  true  God !" 

On  his  return  to  luev  he  commenced,  with  character- 
istic energy,  the  propagation  of  the  neAv  faith ;  his  twelve 
sons  and  all  the  people,  by  his  command  and  under  pen- 
alty of  his  anger,  were  baptized ;  idols  were  overthrown, 
the  great  statue  of  Peroun  was  cast  into  the  Dnieper, 
and  the  entire  nation,  with  a  unanimity  and  suddenness 
that  have  no  parallel  in  the  religious  history  of  Europe, 
turned  from  paganism  to  Christianity  at  the  bidding  of 
its  prince. 

Doubtless  the  labors  of  early  missionaries,  in  neigh- 
boring countries,  had  prepared  the  way,  while  the  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Liturgy  into  Slavonic  by 
Cyril  and  Methodius  assisted  in  the  dissemination  of 
the  truth.  By  popularizing  the  holy  books,  they  tended 
to  impart,  from  the  first,  a  religious  tone  to  the  htera- 
ture  of  Kussia,  and  a  national  spirit  to  its  religion. 

The  docile  and  submissive  nature  of  the  people  had 
been  exemplified  centuries  before,  when  they  summoned 
Euric  to  reign  over  them.  "  Our  country  is  vast  and 
fertile,"  said  they  to  him ;  "  all  things  abound  therein, 
but  order  and  justice  are  wanting  ;  come,  therefore,  gov- 
ern and  rule  over  us." 

It  was  again  illustrated  by  their  ready  comphance  in 
matters  of  behef  Avith  the  commands  of  their  ruler,  and 
explains  the  character,  at  once  popular,  national,  and 
loyal,  of  the  Eussian  Church.  At  the  same  time,  the 
extraordinary  power  of  sacred  pictures,  and  the  devotion- 
al feeling  which  they  excite  in  the  Eussian  mind,  the  re- 
gard for  ceremonial  and  external  rites,  the  rigid  adher- 
ence to  ancient  forms,  the  strong  tincture  of  Oriental- 


20         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ism  -wliicli  pervades  the  Cliurcli,  mark  the  influences 
which  surrounded  its  birth  and  its  affihation  Avith  C!on- 
stantinople. 

Yhidimir,  from  his  conversion  to  his  death,  remained 
steadfast  and  zealous  in  the  faith.  lie  exhibited  by  his 
acts,  throughout  his  later  career,  the  depth  and  earnest- 
ness of  his  convictions.  Architects  and  builders,  bish- 
ops, priests,  and  teachers,  were  summoned  from  the  East. 
In  all  the  cities  of  his  realm  he  erected  churches  and  es- 
tablished schools ;  at  Kiev  he  built  a  cathedral  and  there 
founded  the  metropolitan  see,  over  which  St.  Michael, 
and,  after  him,  St.  Leontius,  prelates  from  Constantino- 
ple, were  called  to  preside.  By  a  fonnal  decree  he  pro- 
vided for  the  regular  support  of  the  Church  establish- 
ment and  the  clergy,  setting  aside  for  the  purpose  a 
tenth  part  of  the  revenues  of  his  kingdom  and  of  his 
subjects.  He  based  his  legislation  upon  the  Greek  Nomo- 
canon,  which  embodies  the  canons  and  decisions  of  the 
seven  oecumenical  councils,  and,  in  accordance  therewith, 
he  gave  to  the  Church  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  pronouncing  his  curse  upon  any  of  his 
descendants,  or  any  officers  of  state,  who  should,  in  the 
present  or  the  future,  disturb  or  infringe  upon  the  regu- 
lations thus  declared.  The  authenticity  of  this  enact- 
ment, which  is  attributed  to  him,  is  doubtful ;  but  his 
persistent  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  Church  is 
abundantly  proven.  Few  princes  can  shoAV  better  title 
to  the  admiration  of  posterity  than  Vladimir,  who,  a 
rude  pagan  warrior,  became  a  wise  and  Christian  ruler. 
Known  in  history  as  the  "  Great,"  and  canonized  by  the 
Church  as  "  Equal  to  the  Apostles,"  he  lives  also  in  popu- 
lar song  and  trachtion  ;  his  exploits  are  related  in  Byzan- 
tine annals,  Arab  chronicles,  and  Scandinavian  sagas. 
He  cleared  forests,  sent  colonies  into  the  wilderness,  re- 


COXVERSION  OF  VLADIMIR  AND  HIS  PEOPLE.  21 

claimed  deserts,  founded  cities,  promulgated  laws,  admin- 
istered justice,  encouraged  learning  and  the  arts,  over- 
threw paganism,  established  Christianity,  and  called  into 
Russia  all  the  civilizing  influences  that  the  world,  in  his 
time,  could  offer. 


CHAPTER  III. 


The  Russian  Church  from  its  Establishment  to  its  Independence  of 
Constantinople. — The  Unia  and  the  Orthodox  Church  in  Poland ; 
Separation  of  the  Latter  from  the  Church  in  Russia. 

After  the  death  of  Tladimir,  in  1015,  bloody  and 
fratricidal  strife  between  the  appanaged  princes  deso- 
lated Kussia  until  Yaroslav,  his  son,  succeeded  in  uniting 
the  whole  kingdom  under  his  sway. 

Yaroslav,  great  among  the  greatest  of  Russian  mon- 
archs,  followed  his  father's  example.  He  sedulously  fos- 
tered the  growth  of  the  Church  as  an  element  of  his  own 
power.  With  its  growth  its  national  character  was  de- 
veloped. It  evinced  its  jealousy  of  foreign  influence 
by  the  election,  in  1051,  of  Ililarion,  a  native  Russian, 
as  metropolitan,  Avithout  reference  to  Constantinople. 
Churches  were  multiplied  in  all  the  cities,  and  the  first 
monastic  establishments  were  founded.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  these,  from  the  great  influence  which  it  exert- 
ed upon  the  civil  and  religious  destinies  of  Russia,  and 
from  the  profound  veneration  in  which  it  is  and  ahvays 
has  been  held  by  the  people,  merits  more  than  a  passing 
notice. 

A  pilgrim  from  Lubetscli  became  a  monk  in  the  Holy 
Land,  under  the  name  of  Anthony,  and  was  distinguished 
for  exemplary  humility  and  devotion.  His  superiors 
marked  his  vocation  for  coenobitic  life,  and,  giving  him 
their  blessing,  ordered  him  back  to  Russia,  prophesying 
the  success  which  would  attend  his  labors  in  his  native 


MONASTERY  OF  THE  PETCHERSKL 


23 


land.  On  his  return,  about  1013,  he  was  divinely  guid- 
ed, in  his  search  for  a  retreat,  to  the  mountain  near 
Kiev,  where  the  metropoUtan  Hilarion  had,  when  a  sim- 
ple priest,  been  wont  to  resort  for  solitary  prayer  and 
meditation ;  there,  in  the  cave,  two  fathoms  deep,  dug 
out  for  himself  by  Hilarion,  Anthony  took  up  his  abode 
and  lived  a  hermit's  life  of  fasting  and  self-denial.  The 
fame  of  his  piety  spread  through  the  land,  and  the  peo- 
ple far  and  near  revered  him  as  a  saint.  Yaroslav  and 
his  son  Isiaslav,  with  the  court,  came  frequently  to  im- 
plore his  blessing ;  and  soon  other  devotees  joined  hira, 
and  dug  their  caves  by  his.  As  their  nmnbers  increased, 
Anthony  appointed  Barlaam  to  rule  over  them  as  abbot, 
and  retired  farther  into  the  forest  to  be  alone.  A 
church  and  a  cloister  were  added  to  the  subterranean 
dwelhngs  which  burrowed  far  into  the  mountain,  and  by 
degrees  other  churches  and  an  immense  monastery,  ded- 
icated to  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  arose  around  and 
above  the  caves  of  the  early  bretliren,  in  memory  of 
which  it  was  called  the  Petcherski.' 

The  prince  and  the  great  lords  were  prodigal  of  their 
riches  in  founding  and  endowing  other  religious  estab- 
lishments, but  none,  writes  Nestor,  one  of  its  inmates, 
prospered  as  did  the  Petcherski,  "  created  without  silver 
or  gold,  of  which  Anthony  had  none,  but  by  fasting 
and  watching,  by  tears  and  jirayers."  Fcodocei,  "  hum- 
blest of  the  brethren,"  succeeded  Barlaam.  He  com- 
pleted the  organization  of  the  brothei'hood  according  to 
the  strict  rules  of  the  Studiura  monastery  of  Constanti- 
nople. As  it  was  the  first,  so  it  became  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  monasteries  of  Eussia,  and  the  source  from 
which  many  sprang. 


'  From  petchera,  meaning  cave  or  cavern. 


24         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUUCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

What  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  were  to  the  Jews, 
Kiev  and  the  Petcherski  are  to  the  Russians.  The  vast 
and  mysterious  catacombs  are  peopled  by  the  bodies  of 
thousands  of  holy  men,  who  still  rest  in  the  caverns 
where  they  lived ;  miracles  are  worked  by  their  remains, 
and  keep  alive  the  ardent  devotion  of  innumerable  wor- 
shippers at  their  shrines. 

AVhen  Christianity  was  introduced  in  Russia  the  schism 
dividing  the  East  and  the  West,  although  threatening, 
was  not  declared,  and  the  Russian  estabhshment  was  a 
branch  of  the  Church  universal,  still,  in  theory,  one  and 
indivisible.  The  final  separation,  consummated  in  1054, 
aroused  but  little,  if  any,  attention  in  Russia.  The 
Church  there,  deriving  its  origin,  its  creed,  and  its  ritual 
from  Constantinople,  followed  as  of  course  the  fortunes 
of  its  parent  stem.  It  ignored  the  doctrines  of  Rome, 
and,  while  it  Avatched  with  jealousy  any  unnecessary  in- 
terference on  the  part  of  the  ])atriarcli,  whom  it  acknowl- 
edged, it  resented  from  the  first  all  pretensions  of  the 
popes  to  jurisdiction  over  it.  Its  flourishing  condition 
had  already  attracted  notice,  and  Rome  was  in  haste  to 
commence  the  long  series  of  her  attempts  to  bring  it 
under  her  authority. 

Yaroslav's  reign  Avas  followed  by  long  and  bloody  civil 
wars.  Isiaslav,  his  son,  driven  from  power,  found  refuge 
in  Germany  and  obtained  promises  of  support  from  Pope 
Gregory  VII.  ujion  condition  of  submitting  his  kingdom 
and  the  Church  to  the  Roman  see.  In  the  bewildering 
maze  of  revolution  and  counter-revolution  Isiaslav  re- 
gained his  throne  without  foreign  aid,  and  Gregory's 
schemes  came  to  naught. 

The  short  reign  of  Vladimir  II.,  Monomachus,  a  wise 
and  pious  prince,  was  the  only  respite  in  a  century  and 
a  half  of  anarchy.    During  this  dreary  period  of  civil 


GENERAL  ANARCHY.— GROWTH  OF  THE  CHURCH.  25 

wars,  culminating  in  national  subjugation  by  the  Tatars, 
the  history  of  the  Church  alone  affords  some  relief  to  the 
gloomy  picture.  It  extended  its  peaceful  conquests  over 
the  Xoi-th  and  towards  the  AVest,  and  its  annals  are  illus- 
trated by  the  lives  of  holy  men  and  devoted  missiona- 
ries. As  a  body  it  gained  in  strength  and  vigor ;  its  in- 
fluence was  courted  and  its  assistance  invoked  by  the 
rival  claimants  of  the  crown,  but  it  suffered  in  its  purity 
and  dignity  by  stooping  to  favor  the  pretensions  of  the, 
for  the  moment,  successful  competitor,  transferring  its 
support  from  the  weaker  to  the  stronger,  as  they  fell  and 
rose.  The  fortunes  of  its  primates  depended  upon  those 
of  the  princes,  and,  as  they  passed  in  rapid  succession  on 
the  throne,  so  bishop  after  bishop  sat  in  the  metropoli- 
tan chair,  and,  in  the  twelfth  century,  three  rival  prelates 
at  one  time  claimed  possession  of  ecclesiastical  sover- 
eignty. 

Amid  civil  dissensions  the  Church  again  manifested 
its  spirit  of  nationality  and  its  impatience  of  foreign  dic- 
tation. In  114:7  a  synod  of  native  bishops  elected  Clem- 
ent, a  liussian  prelate,  as  metropolitan,  without  reference 
to  Constantinople. 

Political  anarchy  had  its  parallel  in  doctrinal  differ- 
ences among  the  clergy,  and  then,  as  in  the  graver 
schisms  to  arise  in  later  years,  these  differences  related 
to  matters  of  practice  and  not  of  dogma. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century  relig- 
ious antagonism  to  the  Church  of  the  "West  Avas  stimu- 
lated by  national  feeling  in  a  struggle  with  a  foreign 
enemy. 

The  orders  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  and  of  the  Breth- 
ren of  the  Sword,  incited  by  Rome,  had  subdued  Lithu- 
ania and  Livonia.  Under  tlie  banner  of  the  Latin  Church 
they  attacked  Russia  on  the  west,  aiming  not  merely  at 


2G         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


conquest,  hwt  at  the  establishment  of  papal  suprem- 
acy. 

Soon  after,  the  Tatars  appeared  on  the  east,  crossed 
the  Volga  in  1237,  and,  in  successive  invasions,  spread 
over  the  country  hke  an  overwhelming  deluge.  JSTot- 
withstanding  the  patriotic  efforts  of  the  popular  hero  and 
saint,  Alexander  Yaroslavitch,  known  in  Russian  history 
as  the  "  Nevsky,"  for  his  great  victory  over  Swedes  and 
Lithuanians  on  the  banks  of  the  iNcva,  the  Tatar  khan 
was  everywhere  triumphant,  and  Russian  princes  accept- 
ed his  sway.  Finally  the  Church  recognized  his  author- 
ity,  but  it  is  her  glory  that  she  was  the  last  to  submit ; 
that  even  then  she  maintained  the  faith,  never  lost  hope 
for  the  future,  and  strove  ever  to  keep  alive  the  dying 
pulsations  of  national  life, 

Russia's  extremity  was  Rome's  opportunity.  Pope 
Innocent  IV.  offered  to  arouse  the  Christian  princes  of 
Europe  in  a  crusade  against  the  Mongols,  if  the  Russian 
Church  would  unite  with  that  of  Rome  and  acknoAvledge 
his  supremacy.  His  proposals  were  disdainfully  refused ; 
Russian  princes  and  the  Church  preferred  submission  to 
the  khan  rather  than  recognition  of  the  pope. 

The  Tatar  conqueror  speedily  realized  the  mighty  in- 
fluence of  the  Church  and  the  clergy  over  the  people, 
and  endeavored  to  enlist  their  support  to  strengthen  his 
authority.  By  his  favor  and  protection,  amid  the  gen- 
eral ruin,  they  increased  greatly  in  power  and  wealth ; 
but,  during  this  period  of  anarchy  and  disorder,  grievous 
abuses  crept  into  the  one,  while  ignorance  and  corrup- 
tion degraded  the  other.  The  metropolitan  Cyril,  a 
Russian,  keenly  sensible  of  these  evils,  was  indefatigable 
in  his  efforts  to  correct  them.  By  his  direction  a  synod 
Avas  convened  in  124:7  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church 
and  to  inflict  discipline  upon  the  clergy.  His  patriotism 


EISE  OF  MOSCOW  UNDER  IVAN  I.,  "KALITA."  £7 

equalled  his  religious  zeal,  and  he  labored  incessantly  to 
create  among  the  Russian  princes  a  spirit  of  harmony 
and  unity  as  the  only  hope  for  the  future. 

Maximus,  a  Greek  from  Constantinople,  followed  Cy- 
ril on  the  metropohtan  throne.  Although  a  foreigner, 
he  proved  a  worthy  successor,  and,  like  Cyril,  endeav- 
ored to  check  the  never-ending  feuds  and  wars  between 
the  native  princes.  His  virtues  and  Christian  character 
inspired  the  Tatar  conquerors  with  respect,  and,  by  per- 
sonal intercession  with  the  "  Horde,"  he  added  greatly 
to  the  power  and  prosperity  of  the  Church.  The  clergy, 
under  his  direction,  always  sympathizing  profoundly 
with  the  people,  availed  themselves  of  their  increased 
influence  and  wealth  to  protect  the  victims  of  Tatar 
tyranny,  and  to  assuage  their  misery  and  sufferings. 

As  Kiev  was  in  ruins,  Maximus  transferred  the  pri- 
macy to  Vladimir,  then  chief  among  the  Russian  cities. 

Moscow  soon  rose  to  importance  under  Ivan  (John)  I., 
sumamed  "Kalita,"  from  his  habit  of  bestoAvmg  alms 
upon  the  poor  from  his  purse.'  This  prince,  established 
in  authority  and  protected  bv  the  khan,  maintained  com- 
parative peace  and  order  within  his  principality ;  Avith  its 
prosperity  his  power  increased,  and  he  became  pre-emi- 
nent among  the  native  magnates.  He  Avas  Avise  and 
politic,  ambitious  yet  patriotic.  "While  keeping  faith 
with  his  Tatar  sovereign,  he  endeavored  to  unite  the 
native  princes  under  one  head,  which  head  he  aspired  to 
be,  as  the  only  means  of  securing  present  tranquillity  for 
Russia  and  its  eventual  liberation.  He  also  fully  real- 
ized the  vast  power  Avielded  by  the  Church,  whicli,  by 
affording  protection  to  the  people  and  m,'iintaining  them 
steadfast  in  the  faith,  had  alone  preserved  any  semblance 


•  Kalita  means  a  pouch,  or  a  purse. 


28         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

of  national  life.  This  power  it  was  his  constant  aim  to 
increase  and  to  enUst  in  support  of  his  own  authority. 
His  purpose  had  the  quick  sjTnpathy  of  the  metropoli- 
tan Peter,  who  had  succeeded  Maximus.  Ambition,  pa- 
triotism, and  religion  were  combined  to  one  common 
end.  Prince  and  primate  were  united  in  hearty,  harmo- 
nious co-operation.  By  their  joint  action  the  primacy 
was  transferred  to  Moscow,  henceforth  to  be  the  capital 
of  the  empire  and  the  seat  of  the  head  of  the  Church. 
Peter  died  before  the  transfer  was  effected,  and  his  last 
words  were  a  prophecy  of  the  future  greatness  of  the 
new  imperial  city,  and  of  the  glory  therein  awaiting  the 
Church.  His  body  was  placed  at  the  corner  of  the  ca- 
thedral erected  to  commemorate  the  event,  and  he,  with, 
his  illustrious  successors,  Alexis,  Jonah,  and  the  martyred 
Philip,  are  accounted  the  foundation  stones  of  the  Rus- 
sian Church. 

Ivan's  efforts  towards  the  creation  of  an  independent 
and  united  Russia  were  recognized  in  the  title  bestowed 
upon  him  by  his  people  of  "  the  Restorer  of  the  Coun- 
try." They  Avere,  however,  not  destined  to  bear  imme- 
diate fruition.  The  future  of  the  empire  was  jeopard- 
ized, in  successive  reigns,  by  renewed  dissensions  among 
the  princes  and  by  dangers  threatening  from  hostile 
neighbors. 

The  turbulent  republics  of  Novgorod  and  of  Pskov 
were  ever  at  variance  with  the  great  prince  of  Moscow, 
but  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  ex- 
tending beyond  the  Dnieper  and  including  Kiev,  was  a 
more  terrible  enemy.  Within  its  territory  the  influence 
of  Rome  was  paramount. 

In  these  critical  times  the  Church  in  Russia,  though, 
torn  by  intestine  dissensions  and  claims  of  rival  pontiffs 
for  pre-eminence,  remained  faithful  to  the  national  cause. 


MONASTERY  OF  THE  TROlTSA. 


29 


Its  acknowledged  heads  labored  with  unswerving  patriot- 
ism against  the  dilRculties  surrounding  the  new  birth  of 
the  nation.  The  dynasty  of  Ivan  Kalita  had  been  set 
aside  by  the  khan.  Dimitri  II.,  the  Tatar  nominee, 
])lanned  the  retransfer  of  the  primacy  to  Vladimir ;  but 
Alexis,  the  metropolitan,  successfully  maintained  the  su- 
premacy of  Moscow  as  both  the  religious  and  political 
capital.  By  his  influence  Ivan's  family  was  restored  to 
the  throne,  and  the  accession  of  Dimitri  III.,  his  grand- 
son, was  welcomed  by  the  princes,  who  began  to  appre- 
ciate the  policy  advocated  by  the  Church,  of  hereditary 
succession  and  of  union  under  the  most  powerful  of  their 
number. 

The  activity  of  the  Church  was  further  manifested  in 
its  own  domain  by  the  erection  of  innumerable  churches 
in  the  different  cities  and  by  an  extraordinary  develop- 
ment of  monastic  life,  which  led  to  the  creation  of  many 
great  and  powerful  religious  establishments.  The  most 
celebrated  among  them  is  the  monasteiy  of  the  Troitsa, 
or  the  Trinity,  near  Moscow,  founded  by  St.  Sergius  of 
Eadonegl.  Like  St.  Anthony  of  the  Petcherski,  St.  Ser- 
gius retired  to  the  wilderness  to  lead  a  hermit's  life  in  a 
little  wooden  hut  built  by  himself,  and  whicli  he  called 
the  "  Source  of  Life."  From  this  humble  origin  sprang 
the  "  ever  glorious  La^Ta "  of  the  Troitsa,  destined,  on 
many  a  memorable  occasion,  to  be  the  bulwark  and  ])re- 
server  of  the  national  existence.  Under  the  blessing  of 
Providence,  favored  and  fostered  by  the  princes  of  Mos- 
cow, it  increased  with  unexampled  rapidity  in  riches  and 
consideration,  and  became  a  city  and  fortress  as  well  as 
a  monastery. 

Macarius,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  after  describing 
its  wealth  and  splendor,  its  buildings  and  churches,  dwells 
on  the  extent  and  strength  of  its  walls  and  bastions,  on 


30         'I'llli  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

its  armory  "furnished  with  cannon  without  number," 
"  with  arms  and  accoutrements  for  more  than  thirty  thou- 
sand men,"  and  "  its  guns  in  numberless  quantities."  ' 
The  military  glory  of  this  sacred  fortress  dates  from  the 
great  victory  of  the  Don.  When  Dimitri  went  forth  to 
do  battle  with  the  Tatar,  St.  Sergius  gave  him  his  bless- 
ing, and  sent  his  brother  monks,  Peresvet  and  Osliab,  to 
fight  by  the  prince's  side. 

Dimitri  III.,  "  the  DonskoY,"  ascended  the  throne  in 
13G2.  Skilful  and  prudent  in  warfare,  chivalrous,  while 
politic,  in  dealing  with  his  rivals,  beloved  by  his  people, 
he  was  also  devoted  to  the  Church,  whose  vast  influence 
was  constantly  exerted  in  his  behalf.  Victorious  in  re- 
pelling Polish  invasions,  he  finally  succeeded  in  uniting 
the  whole  country  under  his  sway. 

The  metropolitan  Alexis,  to  whom,  more  than  to  any 
one,  were  due  the  establishment  of  the  empire  and  the 
revival  of  Russian  nationality,  lived  to  see  the  fruition  of 
his  labors.  lie  was  very  old,  but,  while  yet  alive,  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  with  indecorous  haste,  moved 
perhaps  by  anxiety  at  the  progress  of  the  Eoman  Church 
in  Poland,  appointed  Cyprian  as  his  successor.  The  great 
prince  indignantly  resented  this  unseemly  premature  act, 
and  C}^)rian  retired  to  Kiev.  At  Alexis's  death  Dimi- 
tri hurried  his  favorite,  Mitai,  to  Constantinople  to  ob- 
tain the  investiture,  although  he  was  not  a  prelate  of  the 
Church.  He  died  on  the  way,  and  his  companion,  Pimen, 
fraudulently  secured  his  own  nomination  by  forged  let- 
ters of  credence.  On  his  return  he  was  thrust  into  prison 
for  this  scandalous  abuse  of  confidence,  and  Cyprian  was 
summoned  from  Iviev. 

During  these  ecclesiastical  disputes  the  Tatar  power 


Macarius,  vol.  ii.,  p.  144. 


BATTLE  OF  THE  DON.— ANARCHY  IST  THE  CHURCH.  31 

"was  broken  by  the  great  battle  of  the  Don,  and  Dimitri, 
henceforth  the  Donskoi,  was  hailed  as  "  The  Deliverer 
of  the  Country."  The  victory  over  Maraai,  the  Tatar 
khan,  was  complete,  but  its  fruits  were  lost ;  Dimitri 
returned  to  Moscow  to  enjoy  his  triumph,  instead  of 
pursuing  and  annihilating  the  enemy.  His  glory  and 
increasing  power  aroused  the  jealousy  of  his  neighbors, 
and  his  supineness  revived  the  feuds  of  the  native 
princes.  The  empire  was  attacked  from  the  west,  and  its 
unity  Avithin  was  disturbed,  when  its  independence  was 
again  threatened  by  its  fonnidable  and  hereditary  foe. 
Toktamuish,  a  descendant  of  Genghis  Khan,  destroyed 
the  shattered  forces  of  Mamai,  seized  upon  the  khanate, 
and,  with  fresh  legions  from  the  depths  of  Asia,  swept 
over  the  empire  and  brought  Russia  once  more  under 
the  Tatar  yoke.  Dimitri  returned  to  his  ruined  capital 
to  find  the  Church  deserted  by  its  head.  Cyprian  had  fled 
to  Tver  for  safety,  and  the  prince,  indignant  at  his  pusil- 
lanimity, removed  Ixim  from  office  and  installed  Pimcn. 

The  terrible  calamities  of  the  barbaric  invasion  were 
accompanied  by  anarchy  in  the  Church.  The  clergy  had 
become  corrupt  and  rapacious;  its  ranks  were  swelled 
by  multitudes  of  greedy,  selfish  drones,  who  throve  and 
fattened  in  sloth  and  idleness.  The  people  despised  them 
for  their  ignorance,  vices,  and  gluttony,  groaned  under 
their  oppression  and  rebelled  against  their  exactions. 
Popular  indignation  found  public  expression  in  sects  hos- 
tile to  the  Church.  Amid  disputes  of  rival  pontiffs,  the 
degradation  of  the  clergy,  foreign  invasion,  domestic 
treachery  and  revolt,  the  whole  fabric  of  the  empire,  so- 
cial, political,  and  religious,  seemed  tottering  to  its  fall. 
Some  degree  of  order  was  restored  by  the  energetic  and 
skilful  policy  of  Dimitri,  assisted  by  dissensions  among 
his  enemies. 


32        THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

The  death  of  Pimen  left  Cyprian  sole  claimant  of  ec- 
clesiastical sovereignty,  and,  in  the  succeeding  reign,  he 
returned  to  the  capital  and  united  the  whole  Orthodox 
Church  of  Russia  and  Poland  under  his  jurisdiction. 
His  subsequent  career  marks  his  place  in  the  history  of 
his  country.  While  he  may  be  reproached  for  his  hasty 
flight  from  Moscow,  the  services  Avhich  he  rendered  the 
Church  and  the  nation  cannot  be  overestimated.  By  his 
Christian  virtues,  his  zeal,  tempered  by  prudence,  his  dis- 
cretion and  abihty,  he  preserved  the  existence  of  the 
Orthodox  faith  in  Poland  and  Lithuania,  whose  rulers 
professed  the  Latin  creed,  favored  the  efforts  of  Rome, 
and  viewed  with  jealousy  the  control  of  a  foreign  prelate 
over  their  Orthodox  subjects.  As  metropolitan,  Cyprian's 
administration  was  wuse  and  energetic ;  he  repressed  dis- 
order, corrected  abuses,  and  strictly  enforced  purity  of 
morals  and  disciphne  among  the  clergy.  lie  encouraged 
the  labors  of  St.  Stephen  and  other  missionaries  of  the 
Church,  and  established  regular  ecclesiastical  government 
over  the  converted  heathen  tribes  of  the  vast  countries 
stretching  to  the  Ural  Mountains. 

As  patriot  and  statesman,  he  ably  seconded  the  efforts 
of  the  great  prince  Vassili  II.,  to  recreate  a  free  and  in- 
dependent Russia,  conciliating  the  native  princes,  oppos- 
ing the  formidable  pretensions  of  Vitoft,  King  of  Poland, 
resisting,  with  all  the  power  of  the  Church,  the  Tatars 
under  Toktamuish  and  Tamerlane.  When  dying,  in  1400, 
Cyprian  wrote  to  the  great  prince  and  his  boyars,  to  the 
clergy  and  the  people,  asking  forgiveness  of  his  offences, 
and  giving  them  his  benediction.  Tears  and  lamenta- 
tions followed  the  reading  of  his  words  at  the  altar  of 
the  great  cathedral,  and  from  this  time  metropolitans  of 
Moscow,  at  the  approach  of  death,  have  addressed  simi- 
lar farewell  messages  to  the  nation. 


KIEV  INDEPENDENT.— COUNCIL  OF  FLORENCE.  33 

Cyprian's  death  "was  a  public  calamity.  His  successor, 
Photius,  a  Greek,  had  no  sympathy  with  the  national 
sentiment,  and  estranged  both  the  people  and  the  princes 
by  too  zealous  care  of  the  temporal  interests  of  his  see. 
Yitoft,  no  longer  checked  by  Cyprian's  influence,  deter- 
mined to  free  the  Orthodox  Church  within  his  dominions 
from  the  control  of  a  foreign  prelate.  The  see  of  Kiev 
was  declared  independent  of  that  of  Moscow  in  1415; 
rejoined  to  it  a  few  years  later,  its  independence  Avas 
again  and  finally  established  in  1433. 

Under  Vassili  III.  the  fortunes  of  Eussia  sank  to 
their  lowest  ebb.  Civil  wars,  foreign  invasion,  and  Tatar 
tyranny  brought  the  country  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  The 
metropolitan  see  remained  vacant  after  the  death  of 
Photius,  and  anarchy  reigned  supreme  in  Church  and 
State. 

During  a  short  respite  from  turmoil  and  trouble,  Jonah 
of  Eiazan  Avas  elected  metropolitan  by  a  synod  of  bish- 
ops, but  already  the  patriarch  had  appointed  Isidore  of 
Thessalonica,  bishop  of  lUyria,  as  primate  of  Eussia. 
With  his  advent  upon  the  scene  opens  an  interesting 
phase  of  ecclesiastical  history,  in  Avhich,  not  only  Eussia, 
but  the  other  powers  of  the  civilized  world  were  con- 
cerned. 

The  Byzantine  empire,  a  mere  shadow  of  its  former 
greatness,  was  tottering  to  its  fall.  The  emperors,  de- 
pendent alternately  on  Turkish  forbearance  and  Euro- 
pean favor,  sued  to  or  slighted  both  Moslem  and  Chris- 
tian powers  according  to  their  fluctuating  fortunes,  cun- 
ningly, and  with  dehberation,  playing  one  against  the 
other. 

John  Palffiologus,  as  long  as  Bajazet  spared  his  throne, 
turned  an  indifferent  ear  to  papal  advances,  but  when  he 
had  been  threatened  he  had  humbled  himself  before  the 
3 


34         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

pope,  kissed  liis  slipper  at  St.  Peter's,  and  led  his  mule 
by  the  bridle.  The  Greek  peo})le,  on  the  contrary,  were 
fanatically  attached  to  their  ancient  religion,  although 
among  them  it  had  degenerated  to  mere  formalism. 

The  Roman  Church  was  torn  by  faction  and  schism ; 
rival  pontiffs  disputed  St.  Peter's  chair,  the  pope's  su- 
premacy had  been  denied  by  its  prelates  and  councils, 
as  well  as  by  princes,  and  his  authority  was  no  longer 
absolute  over  either  the  Western  Church  or  the  Western 
powers. 

When  John  Pateologus,  again  menaced  by  the  Turks 
under  Amurat  II.,  turned  to  Europe  for  succor,  Pope 
Eugenius  IV.  eagerly  seized  upon  the  o])portunity  thus 
presented  of  reconcihng  and  uniting  the  Churches  of  the 
East  and  of  the  West,  in  the  hope  that  the  glory  of  this 
achievement  would,  by  re-establishing  the  supremacy  of 
Rome  over  the  whole  Church,  redound  to  his  advantage 
and  silence  all  opposition  to  his  claim  to  be  its  legitimate 
head.  He  relied  upon  the  support  of  Isidore,  an  adroit, 
ambitious,  schemer,  distinguished  for  his  eloquence  and 
diplomatic  tact,  celebrated  for  theological  erudition  and 
learning.  He  was,  moreover,  a  personal  friend  of  the 
pope,  whose  influence  is  supposed  to  have  assisted  in  his 
elevation  to  the  exalted  position  of  chief  of  the  Russian 
Church. 

In  furtherance  of  his  plans  Eugenius  convoked  an 
oecumenical  council  in  Italy,  where  his  own  influence 
was  paramount.  All  the  Western  powers  were  present, 
and,  by  specious  promises  of  material  assistance,  he  in- 
duced the  Greeks  to  join.  The  participation  of  so  pow- 
erful a  member  of  the  Eastern  Church  as  Russia  was 
most  important,  and  Isidore  had  scarcely  taken  posses- 
sion of  his  see  ere  he  was  summoned,  and  craved  of 
Yassili  permission,  to  attend.  Yassih  yielded  a  reluctant 


COUNCIL  OF  FLORENCE.-ACT  OF  UNION. 


35 


assent,  and  charged  Isidore  to  strenuously  uphold  the 
Orthodox  faith,  and  to  return  with  it  intact.  "  Our 
fathers,"  said  he,  "  and  our  ancestors  would  never  listen 
to  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  religions,  nor 
have  I  any  such  intention.  Yet  you  may  go,  if  such 
be  your  desire ;  I  will  not  oppose  your  departure,  but 
remember  the  purity  of  our  faith  and  come  back  with  it 
unsuUied." ' 

The  council  met  at  Ferrara  in  1438 ;  adjourned  to 
Florence,  and  separated  in  1439.  Its  sessions  were  vio- 
lent and  stormy,  its  debates  acrimonious  and  endless. 
Accord  between  the  opposing  parties  which  composed  it 
was  hopeless,  but  the  emperor  and  the  pope  were  deter- 
mined not  to  lose  the  fruit  of  their  labors,  and  to  se- 
cure, by  any  possible  means,  at  least  the  semblance  of  a 
union.  Private  negotiations  supplemented  pubhc  discus- 
sions, and  with  more  profitable  results.  Isidore  was  prom- 
ised a  cardinal's  hat,  and,  by  similar  influences,  opposition 
was  gradually  reduced  to  the  single  voice  of  Mark  of 
Ephesus,  who  denounced  the  compact  in  unmeasured 
terms,  and  was  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 

The  reunion  of  the  Churches  was  proclaimed  by  the 
council,  and  the  articles  of  reconcihation,  subscribed  to 
unanimously  by  the  members  present,  bore  on  four  im- 
portant points.    They  declared, 

That  either  leavened  or  unleavened  bread  might  be 
used  in  the  Eucharist. 

That,  as  regards  purgatory,  the  righteous  enjoy  eter- 
nal happiness  in  heaven ;  unrepentant  sinners  suffer  eter- 
nally ;  while  those  who  have  relapsed  into  sin  after  bap- 
tism and  repentance  are  purified  in  some  intermediate 
state,  by  various  torments,  until  penance  be  accomplished ; 


Karamsin,  vol.  v.,  p.  335. 


3G         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

and,  at  the  resurrection  of  tlie  body  on  the  lust  day,,  all 
men  must  render  an  account  before  the  judgment-seat 
of  God. 

That  the  pope  of  Eome  is  the  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ, 
the  head  of  the  Church  on  earth,  and  the  })atriarch  of 
Constantinople  holds  the  second  place  after  him. 

That  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  tlie  Father  and 
from  the  Son. 

The  pope  and  the  emperor  reaped  their  rewards.  Eu- 
genius  was  hailed  as  the  sole  vicar  of  Christ  on  earth, 
the  faithful  shepherd  who  had  brought  the  sheep  of  the 
East  and  the  West  into  one  fold  after  a  separation  of 
centuries,  and  John  returned  to  Constantinople,  loaded 
with  presents  and  with  abundant  promises  for  the  future, 
to  be,  however,  but  scantily  fulfilled. 

To  Isidore,  made  cardinal  and  apostolic  legate,  the  ul- 
timate results  proved  less  fortunate.  His  return  to  Rus- 
sia was  awaited  with  the  keenest  impatience  and  anxie- 
ty, intensified  by  the  pastoral  addresses,  which,  issued 
by  him  from  time  to  time,  had  preceded  his  arrival. 

Finally,  in  the  great  cathedral  of  the  Assumption  at 
Moscow,  before  the  great  prince  and  an  august  assembly 
of  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  Church  and  the  State, 
and,  to  the  profound  astonishment  of  them  aU,  he  cele- 
brated mass  after  the  custom  of  the  Latin  Church,  and 
solemnly  proclaimed  the  act  of  union.  "Wonder  at  the  in- 
novation in  the  service,  respect  for  a  decree  of  a  council 
called  oecumenical,  and  for  the  illustrious  names  of  the 
em})eror,  the  patriarch,  and  the  Greek  fathers  appended 
to  it,  held  the  vast  assemblage  mute  for  a  space ;  but  soon 
indignation  overcame  amazement.  Vassili,  although  a 
weak  and  vacillating  prince,  was  firmly  attached  to  the 
national  belief,  and,  recovering  from  his  stupefaction,  he 
protested  indignantly  against  the  sacrifice  of  his  own 


INDEPENDENCE  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH. 


37 


and  his  people's  religious  birthright.  He  passionately 
apostrophized  the  metropohtan  as  a  recreant  priest, 
treacherous  to  his  holy  trust,  a  false  teacher,  and  heretic. 

A  synod  of  bishops  immediately  condemned  and  disa- 
vowed the  action  of  the  council.  Isidore  was  deposed 
and  sentenced  to  confinement ;  he  escaped  from  his 
prison  to  Rome,  where,  by  favor  of  the  pope,  he  en- 
joyed the  barren  title  of  Bishop  of  Russia,  and,  at  the 
fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  was  made  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople under  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome. 

Gregory,  one  of  Isidore's  disciples,  and  a  partisan  of 
the  union,  became  metropohtan  of  Kiev  in  liiS,  by  the 
protection  of  Casimir,  King  of  Poland ;  he  endeavored, 
unsuccessfully,  to  extend  his  sway  over  the  see  of  Mos- 
cow, and  was,  with  his  doctrines,  excommunicated  by 
the  Russian  bishops,  who  preserved  the  Muscovite 
Church  steadfast  in  the  ancient  faith,  while  Kiev  and 
Southern  Russia  fell  under  the  domination  of  the  pope. 

At  Constantinople,  although  the  people  and  the  great 
body  of  the  Church  rejected  the  acts  of  the  council  and 
persevered  in  asserting  their  independence  of  papal  au- 
thority, the  emperor  and  the  patriarch  acquiesced  in  the 
union.  As  henceforth  any  Orthodox  patriarchal  confir- 
mation of  a  metropolitan  in  Russia  was  impossible, 
Jonah  of  Riazan,  who  had  been  elected  prior  to  Isidore's 
appointment,  remained,  by  common  consent,  in  charge 
of  the  Church,  and  in  1448  was  formally  consecrated  as 
its  head  by  a  synod  of  bishops.  He  endeavored  in  vain 
to  bring  the  Churches  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  under 
his  control,  and  for  his  efiForts  Avas  excommunicated  by 
the  pope ;  despairing  of  success  against  the  will  of  the 
Pohsh  king,  at  that  time  a  more  powerful  potentate 
than  the  great  prince  of  Russia,  he  abandoned  the  at- 
tempt and  rehnquished  the  empty  title  of  Kiev,  to  as- 


3S         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

sume  that  of  metropolitan  of  Moscow,  by  whicli  he  and 
his  successors  were  thenceforth  designated. 

From  this  period  dates  the  complete  independence  of 
the  Church  of  Russia.  The  necessity  of  its  separation 
from  the  see  of  Constantinople  was  recognized  by  all 
the  Orthodox  members  of  the  Greek  communion,  and 
with  them  all  it  continued  in  close  bonds  of  spiritual 
union. 


I 


CHAPTER  IV. 


The  Church  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.— Effect  of  Tatar  Occupation. 
— Liberation  of  Russia  from  the  Tatars.  —  Attempted  Reforms  in 
the  Church.— The  Orthodox  Church  in  Poland. — Establishment  of 
the  Patriarchate  in  Russia. 

The  restless  spirit  of  inquiry  and  enterprise,  the  pro- 
digious mental  activity  which,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  had  aroused  Southern  and  Western  Europe, 
spread  into  Eussia  and  agitated  the  stagnant  pools  of 
Muscovite  barbarism  and  prejudice.  Civilization,  else- 
where progressing  with  gigantic  strides,  was  there  creep- 
ing onward  with  slow  and  sluggish  steps,  hampered  by 
the  fatuity  and  apathy  typical  of  its  Oriental  origin. 
Belief  in  the  approaching  end  of  the  world  turned  men's 
minds  towards  the  Church.  Among  the  Russian  people, 
pre-eminently  ignorant  and  superstitious  when  ignorance 
and  superstition  were  everywhere  characteristics  of  the 
people,  this  expectation  was  generally  prevalent,  and  the 
consequent  devotional  feeling  correspondingly  intensi- 
fied. Public  churches  were  multiplied,  the  rich  erected 
private  chapels  and  founded  religious  establishments  ; 
innumerable  ecclesiastics  were  required  for  their  ser- 
vices ;  restrictions  for  admission  to  the  clergy  were  dis- 
regarded, and  its  ranks  invaded  by  multitudes  from  the 
poorest  and  lowest  of  the  population,  seriously  debasing 
its  morals  and  lowering  its  character. 

Among  the  great  events  of  which  this  age  was  prolific, 
the  greatest  for  Kussia  was  its  liberation  from  Tatar 


40         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

tyranny ;  national  independence  followed  close  upon  in- 
dependence of  the  Church. 

The  long  period  of  foreign  subjugation  Avas  produc- 
tive of  many  grave  and  abiding  results,  and  among  the 
most  noticeable  are  those  affecting  the  clergy,  as  a  body, 
and  the  Church. 

The  Tatar  princes,  recognizing  the  vast  influence  of 
the  Church  over  the  people,  afforded  it  protection  in  or- 
der to  enlist  its  support  in  favor  of  their  authorit3^  They 
were  also  not  indifferent  to  the  virtues  and  self-abnega- 
tion displayed  by  its  members,  and  treated  its  bishops 
and  dignitaries  with  respect,  accepted  their  mediation, 
and  yielded  frequently  to  their  solicitations  on  behalf  of 
the  suffering  population.  These  marks  of  consideration, 
shown  by  intidel  and  lawless  tyrants,  inspired  the  people 
with  increased  veneration  for  their  pastors,  whom  they 
found  able  to  obtain  for  them  protection  and  redress  of 
wrongs.  For  this  reason,  apart  from  the  influence  of  re- 
ligious sentiment,  they  became  more  than  ever  accus- 
tomed to  turn  to  the  Church  for  relief,  and  to  implicitly 
accept  its  guidance. 

The  monasteries  and  religious  bodies,  exempted  from 
taxation  and  protected  from  spohation,  had  grown  rich 
and  prosperous  amid  the  general  ruin,  and  afforded  a 
haven,  not  only  to  the  poor  and  needy,  but  also  to  such 
of  the  better  class  as,  timid  or  weary  of  strife,  were  glad 
to  sacrifice  property  and  escape  the  responsibilities  it  en- 
tailed in  order  to  secure  safety  or  a  peaceful  refuge. 
Many  of  the  rich  and  noble  poured  their  wealth  into  the 
coffers  of  the  Church  from  gratitude  for  protection,  in 
ex])iation  of  crimes,  or  to  purchase  future  happiness. 
Nearly  all  the  great  religious  institutions  of  Eussia  arose 
during  this  period  of  the  Tatar  conquest. 

The  position  and  attitude  of  the  clergy  towards  the 


EFFECT  OF  TATAR  OCCUPATION. 


41 


governing  powers  were  not  so  much  changed  as  con- 
firmed, in  accordance  with  the  submissive  spirit  of  the 
Greek  Church,  always  content  to  be  the  coadjutor  or 
servant  of  the  civil  authority.  Recruited  in  great  meas- 
ure from  the  people,  the  clergy  sympathized  profoundly 
with  their  feelings  and  sufferings,  shared  their  aspira- 
tions for  deliverance  from  oppression,  and  was  inspired 
by  the  same  ardent  affection  for  the  soil,  but  it  was  also 
deeply  imbued  with  popular  superstitions  and  prejudices. 
Deprived,  under  Tatar  rule,  of  all  right  of  interference 
in  State  affairs,  it  became  devoid  of  ambition  beyond  its 
immediate  sphere.  Seldom,  even  with  its  native  princes, 
did  any  of  its  members  attempt  to  control,  although  they 
may  have  endeavored  to  direct,  the  civil  power  and  stim- 
ulate it  to  action.  While  largely  contributing  to  the 
maintenance  of  national  sentiment,  and  devoted  to  the 
welfare  of  the  people,  it  suffered  in  its  tone  and  charac- 
ter from  the  general  disorganization  of  society.  The 
destruction  of  the  seats  of  learning  at  Kiev  and  through- 
out the  captured  and  plundered  cities  of  the  empire,  the 
suppression  or  interruption  of  schools  and  academies 
almost  completely  annihilated  facilities  for  education. 
With  a  few  exceptions  among  the  higher  dignitaries,  the 
great  body  of  the  clergy  were  hopelessly  ignorant  and 
illiterate ;  possessing  barely  the  knowledge  recjuisite  for 
celebration  of  the  Church  service,  they  conceived  religion 
to  exist  only  in  the  formal  routine  of  ceremonial  observ- 
ances. The  standard  of  morality  among  them  was  low- 
ered, their  character  as  a  body  was  debased,  Avhile  their 
numbers  were  prodigiously  increased. 

Ivan  III.  came  to  the  throne  in  14G2.  He  was  zealous 
for  the  protection  of  religion,  ambitious,  Imt  prudent  and 
politic.  He  reduced  nearly  all  the  principalities  and  cit- 
ies of  Russia  to  his  authority,  and  laid  the  foundations 


42         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 

of  tliG  future  greatness  of  the  empire.  Sophia,  heiress 
of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  was  his  second  wife.  This 
alliance  was  favored  by  Rome  in  the  ho])e  that,  educated 
in  the  Catholic  Church,  this  princess  would  induce  her 
husband  to  acknowledge  the  act  of  union  decreed  by  the 
Council  of  Florence.  The  hope  was  vain ;  Sojihia  ab- 
jured the  Roman  creed  and  maintained  Ivan  steadfast 
in  the  Orthodox  faith,  while  the  Russian  clergy  strenu- 
ously asserted  the  independence  of  their  Church. 

His  authority  firmly  established  Avithin  his  dominions, 
Ivan  aspired  to  free  his  country  from  Tatar  vassalage, 
and  the  whole  nation  arose  at  his  call.  He  refused  tribute 
to  the  khan,  and  summoned  the  entire  forces  of  the  em- 
pire to  repel  the  invasion  of  Ahkmet.  The  armies  Avere 
in  presence  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Oka,  called  by  the 
people  "  the  girdle  of  the  Mother  of  God."  Ivan's  throne 
trembled  in  the  balance ;  he  faltered  and  feared  to  risk 
all  upon  a  single  battle,  but,  as  in  every  great  crisis  of 
Russian  history,  the  Church  was  strong  on  the  side  of 
nationality  and  independence.  The  clergy,  by  the  voice 
of  its  prelates,  urged  him  to  combat.  Vassian,  the  aged 
archbishop  of  Rostov,  rebuked  his  timidity.  "  Dost  thou 
dread  death  ?  Death  is  the  lot  of  all ;  of  man,  beast, 
and  bird  alike ;  none  can  avoid  it.  I  am  old,  borne  down 
by  weight  of  years,  but  give  these  warriors  into  my 
hands  and  I  will  brave  the  Tatar  sword  and  never  turn 
my  back," 

Gerontius,  the  metropolitan,  was  no  less  urgent :  "  Be 
thine,  oh,  my  son  !  the  courage  and  strength  of  mind 
that  belong  to  a  soldier  of  Christ,  A  good  shepherd 
will  die,  if  needs  be,  for  his  flock.  May  God  protect 
thine  empire  and  give  thee  the  victory  !"  ' 


'  Karamsin,  vol.  vi.,  p.  183. 


LIBERATION  FROM  TATARS.— REIGN  OF  IVAN  III.  43 

As  Ivan  still  hesitated,  and  from  his  camp  continued 
negotiations,  Vassian  again  argued  and  earnestly  be- 
sought him,  in  "  the  name  of  the  metropolitan  and  of  us 
all,  representatives  of  Jesus  Christ,"  to  march  against 
Akhmet,  blessing  "  him  and  his  son  and  his  warriors, 
children  of  Christ." 

A  sudden  and  extraordinary  panic  spread  through  the 
hostile  camps,  and  each  fled  from  before  the  other,  with- 
out striking  a  blow.  The  Russians  were  the  first  to 
rally,  and  Ivan  reaped  the  fruits  of  the  campaign. 

The  Tatar  power,  exhausted  and  broken  by  dissen- 
sions among  its  chiefs,  was  no  longer  formidable  to  the 
empire. 

Victorious  in  war,  Ivan  was,  in  peace,  a  wise,  enlight- 
ened, and  magnificent  prince.  He  assumed  great  state, 
embellished  his  capital,  welcomed  at  his  court  scholars 
fleeing  from  the  infidel  conquerors  of  Byzantium,  and 
endeavored,  in  Moscow,  to  revive  the  glories  of  Constan- 
tinople. He  extended  his  favors  to  all  members  of  the 
Greek  communion ;  prelates  came  to  the  Russian  metro- 
politan for  consecration,  and  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
found  refuge  in  Russia  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Sultan 
of  Egypt.  While  solicitous  for  the  national  faith,  he 
was  tolerant  of  other  religions.  He  protected  Mahom- 
etans and  Jews,  and  exhibited  a  leniency,  extraordinary 
for  the  age,  towards  the  dangerous  and  wide-spread  her- 
esy of  the  Judaizers,  which,  promulgated  in  secret,  pene- 
trated into  high  places  of  both  State  and  Church." 

The  metropolitan  Zosimos,  whom  Ivan,  in  the  pleni- 
tude of  his  power,  had  arbitrarily  appointed,  was  con- 
victed of  participation,  but  Avas  simply  deposed  and  rele- 
gated to  a  monastery  without  further  punishment. 


'  See  p.  183. 


44         THE  RUSSIAN  CUURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Persecution  was  forbidden,  and  the  votaries  of  this 
erratic  religious  movement  were  liglitly  dealt  Avith,  until 
their  obstinate  persistency,  after  years  of  forbearance, 
necessitated  more  rigorous  measures  of  sui)pression. 

AVith  greater  dignity  assumed  by  the  monarch  came 
increased  expenditure  and  a  higher  sense  of  imperial 
authority.  Notwithstanding  the  great  services  rendered 
by  the  Church,  I  van,  like  his  contemporary  Louis  XL 
of  France,  became  jealous  of  its  power  and  envious  of 
its  enormous  wealth.  lie  attempted  to  sequestrate  its 
landed  property,  and  to  render  it  more  subservient  to 
his  will ;  but  the  determined  opposition  he  encountered 
was  too  powerful,  and  a  council  confinned  its  ancient 
grants  and  privileges.  Simon,  the  successor  of  Zosimos, 
sturdily  maintained  its  rights,  and  at  the  same  time  care- 
fully watched  over  its  disciphne  and  the  habits  of  the 
clerg}''.  The  monasteries  for  men  were  separated  from 
those  for  women ;  priests  and  deacons  Avho  had  lost  their 
wives  were  prohibited  from  officiating  at  mass ;  simony, 
corruption,  and  irregularities  of  all  kinds  were  severely 
punished,  and  every  effort  made  to  purify  the  morals 
and  elevate  the  tone  and  character  of  the  clerical  pro- 
fession. 

During  this  period  of  consolidation  in  Russia  the 
Church  in  Lithuania  and  Poland  was  ex])oscd  to  trial 
and  suffering.  After  the  death  of  the  Uniate  metropol- 
itan Gregory,  its  bishops  repudiated  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Florence,  refused  to  acknowledge  their  de- 
pendence on  the  pope,  and  insisted  u])on  the  consecration 
of  their  metropolitans  by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
The  rulers  of  the  country,  on  the  contrary,  professed  the 
Roman  creed,  and  subjected  their  Orthodox  population 
to  annoyance  and  persecution.  AVhen  Ivan  m.arried  his 
daughter  Helena  to  Alexander  of  Lithuania,  he  caref  uUy 


PERSECUTION  IN  POLAND.— GROWTH  OF  MOSCOW.  45 

stipulated  for  freedom  in  the  exercise  of  her  rehgion,  and 
earnestly  exhorted  her  to  be  steadfast  herself,  and  to  be 
constant  in  her  efforts  for  the  protection  of  others  of 
their  faith.  This  family  alliance  was  insufficient  to  pre- 
vent dissensions  between  neighboring  princes,  each  grasp- 
ing and  ambitious,  and  with  religious  antagonism  to  whet 
suspicion  and  create  irritation.  Helena's  influence  was 
often,  although  ineffectually,  exerted  to  alleviate  the  op- 
pression to  which  the  Orthodox  were  exjDosed,  but  her 
husband  was  under  pressure  from  the  papal  element, 
which  also  had  his  sympathy,  and  Helena  herself  was 
made  to  feel  it.  Joseph  Saltan,  promoted  to  the  see  of 
Kiev,  became,  in  gratitude  for  his  elevation,  a  convert  to 
the  prince's  views,  and  joined  in  his  efforts  to  crush 
Orthodoxy  and  strengthen  Romanism.  Helena  discreet- 
ly concealed  her  own  vexations,  but  the  cry  of  the  peo- 
ple reached  her  father's  ears  and  aroused  his  indignation. 
Pohtical  relations  between  Lithuania  and  Russia  were 
always  strained,  war  was  constantly  breaking  out  or  im- 
minent, and  in  such  conditions  the  state  of  the  Orthodox 
Polish  Church  was  melancholy  and  distressing. 

Under  Ivan's  son,  Yassili  lY.,  the  Church  in  Russia 
enjoyed  a  long  season  of  tranquillity;  the  missionary 
spirit  was  strong  Avithin  it,  and  it  sent  forth  priests  to 
Christianize  and  colonize  through  Lapland  to  the  shores 
of  the  Northern  seas. 

The  glory  of  Moscow,  as  a  centre  of  learning,  the  seat 
of  the  mightiest  prince  and  most  potent  prelate  of  the 
Orthodox  Church,  attracted  thither  monks  and  emissa- 
ries from  the  convents  and  holy  places  of  the  East  in 
quest  of  alms  and  succor.  Yast  collections  of  religious 
manuscripts  and  books  had  been  accumulated  in  former 
reigns,  and  more  recently  by  Sophia.  Yassili  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople for  theologians  of  competent  erudition  for 


46         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

their  examination  and  study.  The  patriarch  selected 
for  the  i)urpose  Maximus,  a  Greek  monk  of  Mt.  Athos, 
distinguished  for  learning,  piety,  and  ability.  He  applied 
himself  assiduously  to  the  task,  discovered  and  corrected 
many  errors  Avhich  had  crept  into  the  Church  books  by 
the  negligence  of  transcribers,  and,  by  his  emendations, 
restored  the  ritual  in  its  original  purity.  His  virtues, 
the  "svisdom  of  his  counsels,  his  unaffected  piety  and  re- 
ligious zeal,  greatly  endeared  him  to  the  prince.  Not- 
withstanding his  frequent  requests,  now  that  his  labors 
were  ended,  for  permission  to  return  to  his  convent 
home,  Vassili  would  not  consent,  but  retained  him  near 
his  person. 

In  1519  Pope  Leo  X.  urged  the  Russian  monarch  to 
unite  with  the  Christian  princes  of  Europe,  for  the  glory 
of  God,  against  the  Turks.  He  suggested  that  Constan- 
tinople was  his  legitimate  inheritance  as  son  of  a  Greek 
princess.  He  further  offered  to  raise  the  see  of  Moscow 
to  a  patriarchate,  preserving  all  the  "allowable"  prac- 
tices of  the  Eastern  Church,  thus  speciously  disguising, 
while  asserting,  his  assumption  of  jurisdiction.  Vassili, 
however,  mindful  of  the  Te  Deums  celebrated  by  Leo  for 
the  great  victory  of  the  Lithuanians  over  the  "  heretic  " 
Russians  at  Orscha,  declined  his  advances,  and  refused 
others  of  a  similar  nature  from  Clement  VII. 

Vassili's  attachment  to  the  national  religion  was  sin- 
cere, but  he  was  impatient  of  clerical  dictation.  He  forced 
Earlaara,  for  his  uncompromising  austerity,  to  retire 
from  the  primacy,  and  raised  Daniel  to  his  place.  The 
new  metropolitan  was  a  man  of  elastic  principles,  of  nar- 
row, selfish  views,  unscrupulous,  complaisant,  devoured 
by  ambition  and  by  jealousy  of  Maximus,  a  foreigner. 

In  common  with  most  of  the  clergy,  Daniel  was  fanat- 
ically attached  to  the  ancient  ceremonies  of  the  Church 


REIGN  OF  VASSILI  IV.— CLERICAL  INTRIGUES.  47 

ritual,  and  opposed  to  reforms.  To  strengthen  his  posi- 
tion and  ingratiate  himself  with  the  prince,  Daniel  au- 
thorized Yassili's  divorce  from  his  wife  Salomina,  on  the 
plea  of  her  sterility,  and  celebrated  his  marriage  with 
Helena.  On  this  matter  Vassili  had  set  his  heart,  but  for 
a  long  time  in  vain,  as  it  was  contrary  to  ecclesiastical 
canon.  It  is  related  that,  by  Daniel's  advice,  Vassili  con- 
sulted the  Eastern  patriarchs,  and  Mark  of  Jerusalem 
rephed  by  a  prediction  terribly  fulfilled  in  the  succeed- 
ing reign — 

"  Shouldst  thou  contract  a  second  marriage  thou  shalt 
have  a  wicked  son ;  thy  states  shall  become  a  prey  to 
teiTor  and  to  tears ;  rivers  of  blood  shall  flow ;  the  heads 
of  thy  mighty  ones  shall  fall;  thy  cities  shall  be  de- 
voured by  flames." 

Maxiraus  agreed  with  the  other  prelates  in  condemn- 
ing the  proceedings,  and  Daniel  seized  upon  the  occasion 
to  accomplish  his  ruin.  Vassili's  affection  was  turned  to 
hatred,  and,  deprived  of  this  support,  Maximus  was  sum- 
moned before  a  council,  convicted  of  heresy  and  sacrilege 
for  tampering  with  the  Sacred  Books,  and  sentenced  to 
reclusion.  Daniel's  triumph  was  of  short  duration ;  dur- 
ing the  infancy  of  Vassili's  son  Ivan  this  scheming  prelate 
and  his  successor  were  actively  engaged  in  court  intrigues 
and  conspiracies,  and  both  suffered  from  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  struggle  between  rival  factions ;  one  Avas  forced 
to  abdicate,  and  the  other  was  banished.  The  primacy 
was  in  the  gift  of  the  party  in  power,  and  the  selection 
of  the  incumbent  was  of  grave  importance  from  the  in- 
fluence he  might  exercise  over  the  young  prince,  to 
whom,  by  virtue  of  his  functions,  he  had  free  access,  and 
from  his  authority  as  head  of  the  Church.  Macarius, 
archbishop  of  Novgorod,  an  ambitious  man,  but  of  recog- 
nized piety  and  abihty,  was  chosen  in  1542. 


48         THE  RUSSIAN  CHUnCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Ivan  IV.  was  an  infant  when  his  father  died ;  his 
youth  was  turbulent  and  riotous ;  gifted  by  nature  Avith 
great  talents  and  force  of  character,  Avith  lofty  aspira- 
tions, but  strong  and  ungovernable  passions,  with  untir- 
ing energy  and  unbounded  confidence,  his  education  was 
pur})osely  neglected  by  his  guardians,  who,  while  intrigu- 
ing and  disputing  among  themselves  for  power,  each  in 
turn,  in  order  to  strengthen  and  prolong  their  authority, 
gratified  his  caprices,  encouraged  his  excesses,  pandered 
to  his  vicious  propensities,  sedulously  fostered  his  harsh 
and  tyrannical  disposition,  and,  by  adulation  and  flat- 
ter}^, imbued  his  mind  with  the  conviction  that  as  Tsar 
he  could  do  no  wrong.  In  early  life  he  gave  evidence 
of  his  impatience  of  control  and  of  his  cruel  nature. 
When  but  thirteen  years  of  age  he  joined  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  ruling  faction,  viewed  with  complacency 
the  torture  and  death  of  its  chief,  whose  body  he  ordered 
to  be  thrown  to  his  dogs  to  be  devoured.  At  seventeen 
years  of  age,  in  1547,  he  assumed  sovereign  authority, 
and  was  crowned  as  Tsar.  This  title,  derived  from  the 
Hebrew,  borne  by  Chaldean  kings  of  Biblical  history  and 
by  Greek  emperors,  sometimes  adopted  by  his  father  and 
grandfather,  was  henceforth  to  be  the  designation  of  the 
monarchs  of  Eussia.  lie  married  Anastasia  Eomanoff, 
a  native  princess  of  great  beauty,  rare  intelligence,  and 
piety. 

By  a  singular  contradiction,  Ivan,  in  his  Avildest  ex- 
cesses, always  exhibited  extraordinary  regard  for  devo- 
tional observances,  scrupulous  adherence  to  religious 
ceremonial,  and  superstitious  reverence  for  the  Church. 

In  the  year  following  his  marriage  Moscow  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  furious  conflagration ;  popular  insurrections 
broke  out,  and  general  anarchy  threatened  the  stability 
of  the  government.    At  this  juncture,  when  Ivan  was 


rVAN  IV.,  HIS  EXCESSES  AND  REFORMATION,  49 

terrified  and  dismayed  by  these  calamities,  Sylvester,  a 
monk  of  Novgorod,  revered  for  his  sanctity  and  holy 
life,  appeared  before  him,  and,  like  a  prophet  of  old, 
boldly  rebuked  his  shameful  excesses  and  cnielty,  de- 
clared the  ruin  of  Moscow  to  be  the  sign  of  divine  wrath, 
invoked  upon  him  the  vengeance  of  the  Almighty  if  he 
did  not  turn  from  his  wickedness,  and  exhorted  him  to 
give  heed  to  the  Gospel  injunctions  if  he  would  escape 
from  the  hand  of  God  and  live.  Ivan  was  moved  to 
tears,  and  promised  amendment.  Among  his  compan- 
ions Avas  Alexis  Adaschef,  a  youth  of  great  personal  at- 
tractions, of  pure  and  elevated  character,  and  signal  abil- 
ity, who  valued  royal  favor  only  as  a  means  for  noble 
ends,  and  who  joined  Sylvester  in  his  efforts  to  reclaim 
the  prince.  Henceforth  the  influence  of  these  virtuous, 
patriotic  men  was  paramount,  and,  guided  by  them,  Ivan, 
with  characteristic  energy,  summoned  the  bishops  of  the 
Church,  made  public  confession  of  his  faults,  and  be- 
sought the  metropolitan  to  aid  his  youth  and  inexpe- 
rience. 

Success  to  his  arms  abroad  and  prosperity  within  his 
realm  followed  the  wise  and  prudent  administration  of 
his  new  counsellors.  The  civil  laws  were  reduced  to  a 
code  in  1550,  and  the  year  following  an  assembh^,  known 
as  that  of  "  the  Hundred  Chapters,"  from  the  number  of 
its  decisions,  was  convened  to  confirm  the  legal  code  and 
to  take  into  consideration  all  matters  pertaining  to  cler- 
ical discipline  and  reform.  It  was  opened  by  Ivan  in 
person,  who  appealed  to  the  fathers  present  to  "  enlighten 
and  instruct  him  in  all  godliness,"  not  to  spare  his  weak- 
ness, but  to  "  rebuke  his  errors  without  fear ;"  "  so  shaU. 
my  soul  live  and  the  souls  of  all  my  people." 

From  the  scanty  records  of  this  council  it  would  seem 
to  have  undertaken  a  thorough  reform  of  the  Church 
4 


50         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

and  of  the  ritual,  but  its  action  was  incomplete  and  most 
unfortunate.  Many  superstitious  practices  were  pre- 
served, and  the  alterations  of  the  Churcli  books  Avere 
superficial  and  incorrect.  Errors,  allowed  to  stand,  re- 
ceived thereby  additional  confirmation,  and  were  more 
widely  dissemmated  by  the  introduction  of  printing. 

Meanwhile  Russian  arras  were  everywhere  victorious. 
Kasan  and  Astracan  were  subdued,  the  Golden  Horde 
crushed,  and  the  dominion  of  the  Church  was  extended 
over  the  conquests  of  the  State.  Ivan,  yet  faithful  to  his 
virtuous  resolves,  loved  by  his  people,  feared  by  his  ene- 
mies, realized  a  crowning  happiness  in  the  birth  of  a  son. 

A  change  was  imminent,  terrible  as  it  was  unexpected. 
During  a  serious  illness  of  the  tsar  intrigues  and  disputes 
regarding  the  succession  filled  his  soul  with  doubts  of 
the  loyalty  of  his  most  faithful  friends.  His  mind,  un- 
hinged by  sickness,  was  painfully  affected  by  the  sud- 
den death  of  his  child  and  of  his  beloved  wife,  and  per- 
fidious counsels  fostered  suspicions,  to  which  his  dark 
and  sombre  disposition  was  prone.  He  sought  advice 
from  a  former  favorite  of  his  father,  Vassi an,  ex-bishop 
of  Kolomna,  who  had  been  deprived  of  his  diocese  for 
crime.  This  old  man,  whose  heart  was  filled  with  gall 
and  envy,  whispered  suggestions  which  found  ready  re- 
sponse in  Ivan's  diseased  fancies. 

"  If,"  said  he,  "  you  Avish  to  be  absolute  monarch,  have 
no  confidant  wiser  than  yourself ;  give  orders,  but  receive 
advice  from  no  one ;  always  command  and  never  follow 
the  lead  of  others  ;  thus  you  will  be  indeed  a  king,  ter- 
rible to  your  lords.  Eemember,  above  all,  that  a  coun- 
sellor, even  of  the  wisest  prince,  inevitably  becomes  his 
master." ' 


'  Karamsin,  vol.  viii.,  p.  234. 


IVAN  IV.,  RELAPSE;  CRUELTY.— RUSSIAN  LOYALTY.  51 


The  poisonous  seed  bore  fatal  fruit.  Ivan,  then  but 
thirty  years  of  age,  seemed  to  lose  aU  faith  in  mankind. 
He  surrounded  himself  with  sycophants  and  parasites, 
and  plunged  anew  into  the  wild  excesses  of  his  youth ; 
he  pursued  his  former  friends  with  relentless  cruelty,  ar- 
raigned and  condemned  Adaschef  and  Sylvester  for  trea- 
son. His  tyranny  grew  with  its  indulgence ;  every  one 
became  an  object  of  suspicion ;  prisons  were  filled  with 
victims ;  blood  ran  like  water ;  no  head  was  too  high,  no 
character  too  pure,  for  attack.  The  natural  ferocity  of 
his  disposition  broke  through  all  restraints,  and  he  seemed 
to  be  possessed  by  a  wild,  insane  fury  to  torture,  slay, 
and  destroy ;  yet,  with  strange  inconsistency,  making  pro- 
fession of  earnest  devotion  all  the  while,  constantly  hum- 
bling himself  before  the  altar,  and,  cleansed  of  past  enor- 
mities, going  forth  with  fresh  thirst  for  blood. 

Anastasius  succeeded  Macarius,  but,  terrified  at  the 
atrocities  committed  by  the  tsar,  and  at  his  impatience 
of  aU  remonstrance,  he  soon  retired  to  a  monastery. 

Ivan,  apprehensive  of  the  possible  consequences  of  his 
cruelty  and  oppression,  removed  with  his  court  to  Alex- 
androv ;  his  people,  in  consternation  at  his  departure  from 
Moscow,  implored  him  to  return,  and  he  yielded  to  their 
solicitations  only  upon  condition  of  absolute  submission 
to  his  will.  Tliis  they  promised,  and  their  obedience 
never  faltered  through  a  long  reign  distinguished  in  aU 
history  for  its  unspeakable  horrors. 

"  He  who  blaspliemcs  his  Maker  will  meet  with  for- 
giveness among  men,  but  he  who  reviles  the  Tsar  will 
surely  lose  his  head,"  is  a  Eussian  saying,  and  loyalty 
was  a  principle  of  religion  ingrained  in  the  Russian  soul. 
A  nobleman  impaled  by  Ivan,  for  some  trivial  offence, 
while  languishing  in  agony,  constantly  repeated, "  Great 
God,  protect  the  Tsar !"    "  K either  tortures  nor  dishon- 


52         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

or,"  Avritcs  a  chronicler  of  the  times,  "  could  shake  their 
devotion  to  the  sovereign." 

On  returning  to  the  capital,  Ivan,  in  a  Avild  caprice, 
established  the  "  Opritchnina,"  '  and  divided  the  empire 
into  the  so-called  "  personality  "  and  "  communality ;" 
the  one  to  be  his  individual  property,  under  his  personal 
rule,  and  the  other  to  be  governed  by  the  boyars  and  or- 
dinary officers  of  the  State.  He  formed  a  body-guard 
called  the  "  Opritchniki,"  or  Legion  of  the  Elect,  chosen 
for  their  debauched  and  lawless  habits,  and  sworn  to 
obey  him  only,  and  in  all  things,  ignoring  all  other  au- 
thority. With  them  he  gave  free  vent  to  his  fiendish 
passions  and  diabohc  cruelty.  City  and  country,  noble 
and  peasant,  Avere  alike  subjected  to  pillage,  extortion, 
and  torture.  At  Alexandrov  he  established  a  chai)el  and 
monastery,  where  he  and  his  familiars,  in  the  garb  of 
monks,  officiated  and  assiduously  followed  the  strictest 
rule  of  monastic  life.  He  spent  hours  in  prayer  and 
self-flagellation,  as  if  to  quiet  remorse,  and  then,  unable 
to  control  his  thirst  for  blood,  he  passed  from  the  fa- 
tiguing and  exhausting  service  of  the  altar  to  rest  and 
refresh  himself  by  superintending  the  rack.  Vain  of  his 
theological  acquirements  and  devotional  practices,  he 
was  wont  to  vary  his  occupation  as  torturer  and  execu- 
tioner by  admonishing  the  clergy  to  be  faithful,  and  to 
take  pattern  from  him  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties. 

Before  the  Church  fell  into  ignominious  subserviency 
a  martyr  was  added  to  its  list  of  saints.  When  Atha- 
nasius  retired,  Germanus  refused  the  primacy  and  re- 
buked the  tsar  for  his  crimes.  Philip,  a  monk  of  noble 
birth,  distinguished  for  piety  and  learning,  was  sum- 


'  Opritchnina,  or  opritcldna,  is  an  old  Russian  word,  now  obsolete, 
meaning  privilege  ;  opritchniki,  the  persons  who  are  "  privileged." 


THE  OPRITCHNIN^  MARTYRDOM  OF  PHILIP.  53 

moned  from  the  distant  monastery  of  Solovetsk.  Mind- 
ful of  the  grave  responsibihties  and  duties  of  the  high 
ofRce  offered  him,  he  declined  its  acceptance  unless  the 
tsar  would  abolish  the  Opritchnina  and  restore  the  unity 
of  the  empire.  Finally,  hoping  to  mitigate  the  evils  of 
this  institution,  if  he  could  not  obtain  its  suppression, 
he  yielded  to  the  soHcitations  of  the  people. 

Ivan's  diseased  imagination  saw  cons])iracy  and  rebel- 
lion threatening  his  throne,  and,  to  strike  his  enemies 
with  terror,  he  redoubled  his  persecutions.  Philip,  by 
his  constant  exhortations  to  mercy  and  amendment,  be- 
came odious  to  the  t}Tant,  who  at  times  seemed  pos- 
sessed by  an  insane  fancy  to  mock  the  Church  which 
generally  he  so  much  feared.  He  presented  himself,  on 
one  occasion,  dressed  in  strange  attire,  accompanied  by  a 
band  of  his  Opritchnild,  before  the  primate  at  the  altar, 
to  receive  his  blessing.  Philip  took  no  notice  of  his 
presence,  but  when  the  boyars  announced  to  him  that 
the  tsar  was  before  him,  he  replied, "  I  do  not  recognize 
the  tsar  in  any  such  dress ;  I  do  not  recognize  the  tsar 
in  his  acts.  What  is  this  that  thou  hast  done,  O  tsar ! 
to  put  off  from  tliee  the  form  of  thine  honor  ?  Fear  the 
judgment  of  God.  Here  we  are  offering  up  the  blood- 
less sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  while  behind  the  altar  there  is 
flowing  the  innocent  blood  of  Christian  men."  Ivan, 
furious,  tried  to  stop  his  lips  with  menaces.  "  I  am  a 
stranger  and  a  pilgrim  upon  earth,"  was  the  reply,  "  as 
all  my  fathers  were,  and  I  am  ready  to  suffer  for  the 
truth.    AVhere  would  my  faith  be  if  I  kept  silence." 

Ivan  was  awed,  but  greedily  listened  to  accusations  of 
seditious  intrigues  brought  against  Philip,  and  a  packed 
tribunal  of  venal  prelates  condemned  him.  He  calmly 
submitted  and  resigned  the  insignia  of  his  office,  but  was 
ordered  to  officiate  again  at  a  solemn  festival.  When  on 


54         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUUCU  AND  RUSSL\N  DISSENT. 

the  ste}>s  of  the  altar,  arrayed  in  his  pontifical  robes,  a 
troop  of  armed  men  invaded  the  sanctuary ;  their  leader 
proclaimed  the  primate's  deposition,  and  the  soldiers, 
"with  blows  and  insult,  tore  the  sacred  vestments  from 
his  back  and  dragged  him  to  prison.  Philip  exulted  in 
being  permitted  to  suffer  for  the  truth,  and,  turning  on 
the  steps  of  the  Church,  he  gave  his  blessing  to  the 
horror-struck  worshippers,  with  the  single  admonition, 
"  Pray."  '  Transferred  to  the  Otroch  monastery,  he  was 
strangled  in  his  cell  by  the  tsar's  command,  and  died  a 
martyr ;  to  the  honor  of  Russian  monarchs,  be  it  said, 
the  only  one  the  annals  of  the  Church  record. 

After  the  death  of  Philip,  weak  and  pusillanimous 
prelates,  humbly  submissive  to  the  tjTant's  will,  occu- 
pied the  metropolitan  throne,  and  all  attempts  to  check 
the  tsar's  excesses  ceased.  The  Church  sanctioned  liis 
frequent  marriages,  in  scandalous  violation  of  ecclesias- 
tical canons,  and,  unable  to  protect  even  its  own  mem- 
bers, was  a  silent  witness  to  scenes  of  atrocious  cruelty 
and  unbridled  license.  An  imaginary  consjDiracy  was 
Ivan's  pretext  for  the  destruction  of  Novgorod,  still 
boasting  the  name  of  "  Great,"  but  sadly  fallen  from  its 
ancient  high  estate.  The  unhappy  city  was  given  over 
to  sack  and  pillage ;  churches  and  monasteries  were  sac- 
rilegiously plundered ;  the  miserable  inhabitants  led  forth 
by  thousands  to  be  broken  on  the  wheel,  boiled  in  oil, 
sawn  between  planks,  or  flayed  alive,  while  Ivan  looked 
gleefully  on,  racking  his  hellish  ingenuity  to  devise  new 
tortures.  Pskov  was  saved  from  a  similar  fate  by  the 
bold  interposition  of  a  religious  fanatic  named  Nicholas, 
Avho,  feigning  insanity,  dared  upbraid  the  savage  tyrant, 
and  so  aroused  his  superstitious  fears  that  he  left  the 


'  Mouravicf,  pp.  116, 117. 


ROME'S  ATTEMPTS  AT  UXION  OF  THE  CHURCHES.  55 

city  in  peace.  It  is  related  that  he  offered  Ivan  raw 
meat,  and,  it  being  Lent,  the  tsar  replied,  "  I  am  a  Chris- 
tian, and  eat  no  meat  in  Lent."  "  Thou  doest  worse," 
was  the  hermit's  rejoinder;  thou  feedest  upon  human 
flesh  and  blood,  forgetting,  not  Lent  indeed,  but  Christ 
Himself." 

l^otwithstanding  the  subserviency  of  the  clergy,  its 
patriotic  spirit  was  not  extinct.  In  15 SO,  when  Kussia 
was  sore  beset  on  every  side,  a  council  assembletl  at 
Moscow  eagerly  responded  to  the  monarch's  call  for  aid, 
and  relinquished  to  the  crown  all  the  landed  estates 
which  the  Church  had  acquired  by  gift  or  purchase  from 
the  princes  of  Moscow.  At  this  critical  juncture  Ivan's 
wonted  energy  deserted  him.  Hidden  from  his  people 
in  the  gloomy  retreat  of  Alexandrov,  he  revelled  and  ca- 
roused with  his  favorites,  giving  his  son  in  marriage  and 
espousing  his  seventh  wife,  while  defeat  and  disaster 
overwhelmed  the  empire.  He  was  compelled  to  humble 
himself  before  the  Polish  king  and  sue  for  peace. 

The  pope  Gregory  XIII.  deemed  the  opportunity  pro- 
pitious for  renewing  the  oft -repeated  attempt  at  union 
of  the  Churches,  and,  in  1581,  despatched  to  Moscow  An- 
thony Poissevin,  a  Jesuit  of  Avily  and  insinuating  man- 
ners, of  great  diplomatic  skill,  to  act  in  his  name  as  me- 
diator between  the  combatants.  Although  the  vast  re- 
sources of  Russia  were  far  from  being  exhausted,  Poisse- 
vin, adroitly  playing  upon  the  pusillanimous  fears  of  the 
tsar,  induced  him  to  conclude  an  armistice  upon  disad- 
vantageous terms,  and  Livonia  was  lost  to  Russia,  after 
nearly  six  centuries  of  possession.  During  the  negotia- 
tions with  Stephen  Batory,  King  of  Poland,  the  tsare- 
vitch  Ivan,  who,  though  educated  in  vice,  inherited  the 
manhness  of  his  father's  youth,  indignant  at  the  national 
humiliation,  begged  pennission  to  lead  an  army  against 


56        THE  RUSSLVN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

tlio  enemy;  but  the  jealous  t}Tant,  in  a  fit  of  frenzy, 
suspicious  of  treachery  even  in  his  own  son,  felled  him 
by  a  fatal  blow  from  his  iron  staff. 

Poissevin,  relying  on  his  success  in  securing  the  peace 
Avhich  Ivan  desired,  proceeded  to  Moscow  to  develop  the 
future  plans  of  Rome.  In  return  for  the  services  lie  had 
rendered  he  urgetl  the  tsar  to  recognize  the  fusion  of  the 
Churches  promulgated  by  the  Council  of  Florence,  to  en- 
ter into  an  alliance  with  tlie  other  European  powers,  and 
thus  array  the  W' hole  Christian  world  in  a  crusade  against 
the  Turks.  lie  eloquently  discoursed  on  the  glorious  op- 
portunity of  restoring  unity  to  the  universal  Church,  not, 
he  claimed,  by  abjuring  the  Greek  religion,  but  by  pre- 
serving it  in  its  ancient  purity,  as  estabhshed  by  the  early 
Councils,  as  decreed  at  Florence,  recognized  by  the  Greek 
emperor,  the  patriarch,  the  clergy  of  Constantinople,  and 
by  Isidore,  the  former  illustrious  head  of  the  Russian 
Church.  He  adroitly  insinuated  the  prospect  of  recov- 
ering Kiev,  the  ancient  patrimony  of  the  race  of  Ruric, 
and  of  grasping  the  sceptre  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 
His  arguments  feU  on  a  listless  and  unwilling  ear.  Ivan, 
consumed  by  remorse  at  the  murder  of  his  son,  his  anxi- 
ety about  foreign  invasion  allayed,  his  youthful  energy 
dulled  by  excesses  and  indulgence,  felt  no  kindling  am- 
bition for  a  shadowy  empire  in  the  East.  He  ridiculed 
the  Orthodoxy  of  Western  Christians,  who  shaved  their 
beards,  and  the  pretensions  of  the  pope  to  sit  on  a  throne 
above  kings,  and  give  them  his  toe  to  kiss.  "  We  earthly 
sovereigns,"  said  he,  "  alone  wear  crowns.  The  heir  of 
the  apostles  should  be  meek  and  lowly  in  spirit.  We 
reverence  our  metropolitan,  and  crave  his  blessing,  but 
he  walks  humbly  on  earth,  and  seeks  not,  in  pride,  to 
raise  himself  above  princes.  There  is  but  one  Holy  Fa- 
ther, and  He  is  in  heaven;  whoso  calleth  himself  the 


DEATH  OF  IVAN  IV.;  HIS  SUCCESSOR  FEODOR  I.  57 

companion  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  is  carried  on  men's  shoul- 
ders, as  if  borne  up  on  a  cloud  by  angels,  is  no  true  shep- 
herd, but  a  wolf  in  sheep's  clothing." ' 

Poissevin's  persistence  and  eloquence  were  exerted  to 
no  purpose ;  the  utmost  concession  he  could  obtain  was 
that  Catholics,  like  other  heretics,  might  dwell  in  Kussia 
without  molestation  on  the  score  of  religion,  but  the  erec- 
tion of  Latin  churches  and  the  propagation  of  their  faith 
were  prohibited. 

The  erudite  Dionysius,  surnamed  "  Grammaticus  "  for 
his  learning,  had,  during  the  last  years  of  this  reign,  by 
his  prudence,  virtues,  and  energy,  somewhat  restored  the 
dignity  of  the  metropolitan  see. 

"Worn  out  before  his  time  by  the  warring  of  his  fierce 
passions,  alternating  with  fits  of  remorse  and  repentance, 
Ivan,  in  his  latter  days,  turned  again  to  the  Church  for 
relief;  he  showered  rich  alms  on  the  holy  convents  of 
Sinai  and  Athos,  exhorted  his  youthful  son  and  heir  to 
rule  with  mercy  and  charity  for  his  subjects,  and,  receiv- 
ing tonsure  from  the  priest's  hands,  the  "  Terrible"  Tsar 
yielded  up  his  soul  as  the  simple  monk  Jonah. 

"  lie  had  passed  over  the  land  of  Russia,"  says  a  great 
poet,  "  like  a  blast  of  divine  wrath,"  and  now,  on  the 
throne  of  this  "  scourge  of  God,"  sat  a  gentle  and  pious 
youth,  Avho  seemed  lost  in  the  gloomy  precincts  of  the 
Kremhn,  a  wandering  monk  avIio  had  strayed  from  his 
monastery. 

Feodor  (Tlieodore)  I.  was  small  in  stature,  weak  in 
health  and  intellect ;  he  joined  to  extreme  mildness  of 
disposition  a  timid  spirit,  excessive  piety,  and  a  profound 
indifference  for  this  world's  affairs ;  he  passed  his  days 
in  listening  to  pious  legends,  singing  hymns  with  monks. 


'  Karamsin,  vol.      p.  460. 


58        THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

and  his  greatest  pleasure  was  to  ring  the  convent  bells 
and  share  in  the  services  of  the  Church  ;  "  lie  is  a  sacris- 
tan," said  his  father,  "  and  no  tsarevitch." 

Yielding  in  character,  and  fondly  attached  to  his  wife, 
Irene,  he  reposed  implicit  confidence  and  trust  in  her 
brother,  Boris  Godounov,  who,  during  the  entire  reign, 
wielded  the  supreme  authority  in  the  young  tsar's  name. 

Godounov,  by  his  energy  and  ability,  restored  strength 
to  the  crown  and  prosperity  to  the  State.  Looking  for- 
Avard  with  far-sighted  and  patient  ambition,  he  saw  the 
sceptre  within  his  grasp.  So  important  an  element,  in 
his  calculations,  as  the  clerg}'^,  Avas  not  neglected ;  Dio- 
nysius,  the  metropolitan,  penetrated  the  secret  of  his 
treacherous  designs,  and,  anxious  regarding  the  succes- 
sion, as  Irene  Avas  childless,  he  instigated  a  petition,  not- 
withstanding its  uncanonical  object,  to  the  tsar  for  Ms 
diA^orce.  Ilis  machinations  resulted  in  his  ruin ;  he  Avas 
deposed,  and  confined  in  the  convent  of  Ivlioutinsk.  Go- 
dounov Avas  all-poAverful,  and  by  his  influence  Job,  arch- 
bishop of  Rostov,  Avas  installed  as  primate. 

The  Russian  Church  Avas  still  nominally  under  the  ec- 
clesiastical jurisdiction  of  the  patriarchal  see  of  Constan- 
tinople, but  the  Eastern  Church  had  fallen  to  a  state  of 
lamentable  decrepitude  and  degradation.  The  patriarch, 
although  elected  b}^  a  synod,  Avas  dependent  on  the  Turk- 
ish emperor  for  confirmation,  which  Avas  to  be  obtained 
only  by  intrigue  and  bribery ;  the  ambition  of  Eastern 
prelates  to  Avield  the  pastoral  staff  was  a  never-failing 
source  of  revenue  to  the  sultan  and  his  favorites.  Each 
incumbent  Avas  in  turn  the  victim  of  the  jealousy  of  his 
competitors,  and  scarcely  had  he  mounted  the  sUppery 
steps  of  the  throne  ere  he  Avas  removed  to  make  place 
for  a  rival  more  fortunate  from  influence  at  court  or  Avith 
a  heavier  purse  to  support  his  pretensions. 


DEGRADATION  OF  THE  EASTERN  CHURCH.  59 

During  the  century  subsequent  to  the  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople suffering  and  martyrdom  were  the  general  lot  of 
the  successors  of  St.  Chrysostom,  but  it  was  suffering 
without  good  for  the  Church,  and  martyrdom  without 
dignity.  Their  procession  is  a  melancholy  one ;  Joasaph 
Cocas,  persecuted  by  his  clergy,  attempted,  in  despair,  to 
drown  himself  in  a  well ;  rescued,  and  reseated  on  the 
throne,  he  Avas  driven  into  exile  by  the  sultan;  Mark 
Xylocaraboeus  was  exiled ;  Simeon  paid  a  thousand  gold 
florins  for  his  seat,  and  was  thrown  into  a  monastery ; 
Dionysius  had  the  same  fate;  Raphael,  to  secure  his 
nomination,  doubled  the  tribute  hitherto  exacted ;  una- 
ble to  pay  the  sum  promised,  he  was  thrust  forth,  loaded 
with  chains,  to  beg  by  the  roadside,  and  died  in  misery ; 
Kyphon  had  his  nose  cut  off,  and  was  forced  into  exile ; 
Joachim  raised  the  tribute  to  three  thousand  ducats,  was 
exiled,  recalled,  and  again  exiled ;  Pacome  was  poisoned ; 
Jeremiah  I.  started  on  a  pastoral  tour,  his  vicar  deserted 
him  on  the  way,  hurried  back,  bribed  the  vizier,  and 
usurped  the  see ;  he  was  driven  away  by  a  popular  out- 
break, and  Jeremiah's  friends  purchased  for  him  permis- 
sion to  resume  his  seat ;  Joasaph  11.  again  raised  the  trib- 
ute, was  deposed  and  excommunicated  by  his  clergy  for 
simony ;  Gregory  was  cast  into  the  sea ;  C}Til  Lucar  was 
exiled  and  strangled ;  Methrophanes,  accused  of  simony, 
was  induced  to  resign  by  the  offer  of  two  dioceses ;  he 
sold  the  one  and  administered  the  other ;  Jeremiah  II., 
bishop  of  Larissa,  was  elected  and  confirmed  in  1572 ; 
his  funds  were  exhausted  by  the  tribute,  then  fixed  at 
ten  thousand  florins,  and  he  piteously  complained,  in  his 
correspondence,  that  he  dared  not  undertake  a  pastoral 
tour  to  replenish  his  treasury  from  the  alms  of  the  faith- 
ful for  fear  that,  in  his  absence,  some  ambitious  brother 
might  seize  upon  the  throne.  The  danger  was  real ;  Me- 


(30         THE  RUSSLVN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

tliropliancs  reappeared,  and  reasserted  his  claims  to  the 
patriarchate ;  as  his  purse  was  the  longer,  he  was  rein- 
stated on  appeal  to  the  sultan.  At  his  death  Jeremiah 
again  enjoyed  a  brief  spell  of  power,  but,  accused  of  con- 
spiracy against  the  government,  he  was  imprisoned,  then 
exiled  to  Rhodes.  Theoptus,  his  accuser,  seized  the  va- 
cant scat,  disputed,  also,  by  Pacome,  a  monk  of  Lesbos, 
and,  by  the  opportune  payment  of  a  double  tribute,  se- 
cured the  imperial  confirmation ;  imprudently  he  vent- 
ured on  a  pastoral  visit  to  Walachia,  and  in  his  absence 
Jeremiah's  friends  purchased  his  pardon,  and  reseated 
him  on  the  throne.' 

The  dilapidation  of  the  finances  of  the  patriarchate, 
the  ruin  threatening  the  whole  fabric,  and  the  exhauS' 
tion  of  all  parties,  brought  about  perforce  a  general  rec- 
onciliation, and  Jeremiah  was  left  in  undisputed  posses- 
sion. A  common  effort  was  made  to  heal  the  wounds  of 
the  unhappy  and  suffering  Church  ;  missions  were  de- 
spatched to  various  countries  in  search  of  succor  and 
alms,  and  Jeremiah  himself,  for  the  same  purpose,  un- 
dertook a  journey  to  Russia,  the  wealthiest  and  most 
powerful  member  of  the  Orthodox  communion.  His  ar- 
rival was  happily  timed  for  the  designs  of  the  ambitious 
Boris. 

Under  his  influence  the  pious  Feodor  had  eagerly 
seized  upon  the  idea  of  freeing  the  national  Church  from 
all  dependence,  however  slight,  upon  foreign  jurisdic- 
tion. Probably  to  prepare  the  way  for  this  step,  early 
in  his  reign  he  sent  an  embassy  to  the  sultan,  and  charged 
his  envoy  with  rich  gifts  for  the  patriarch  and  kindly 
assurances  of  good-will  towards  the  Church.  In  1586 
Joachim  of  Antiocli  appeared  in  Russia  in  quest  of 


'  De  VogU^,  Revue  des  Deux  Moiides,  Mars,  1879. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  RUSSIAN  PATRIARCHATE.  61 

alms,  and,  during  his  visit,  Feodor  announced  to  his  coun- 
cil and  clergy  his  intention  to  deviate  the  see  of  Mos- 
cow to  the  rank  of  patriarchate.  They  approved  of  his 
project,  but  urged  that  the  assent  of  the  whole  East- 
ern Church  be  first  obtained,  in  order  to  forestall  any 
reproach  from  schismatics  or  heretics,  that  the  change 
was  due  to  a  merely  arbitrary  act  of  the  tsar.  Joachim, 
while  favoring  Feodor's  plan,  concurred  in  the  wisdom 
of  delay,  and,  abundantly  rewarded  for  his  compliance, 
took  his  departure  for  the  East,  promising  to  press  the 
matter  upon  his  brother  patriarchs.  A  year  or  more 
passed ;  the  oecumenical  fathers  delayed  their  answer ; 
doubtless  the  proposition  met  with  little  favor  in  their 
eyes ;  they  feared  to  affront  a  powerful  friend,  yet,  un- 
wilUng  to  assent,  sought  refuge  in  procrastination. 

At  this  juncture  Jeremiah  arrived  at  Moscow,  and  was 
welcomed  with  all  the  honors  that  a  pious  monarch  could 
render  to  one  of  his  exalted  rank.  Touched  with  grati- 
tude at  his  reception,  he  expressed  his  approval  of  the 
tsar's  desire  to  institute  a  Russian  patriarchate.  To  his 
surprise,  Godounov,  hy  the  tsar's  orders,  proposed  to 
him  that  he  should  abandon  his  poverty-stricken  capital 
on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  escape  from  humiliating 
subjection  to  the  infidel  Turk,  and  assume  charge  of  the 
newly -established  primacy  over  rich,  poAverf ul,  Orthodox 
Russia.  Jeremiah,  dazzled  by  the  brilliant  prospect,  wil- 
lingly assented,  but  it  formed  no  part  of  the  plans  of  the 
astute  Godounov  that  a  stranger  should  occupy  in  Russia 
so  exalted  a  station.  While  laboring  for  the  aggrandize- 
ment of  the  national  Church,  he  intended  that  it  should 
also  serve  his  ambitious  ends,  and  reserved  the  primacy 
for  a  friend  and  partisan  upon  whose  support  he  could 
rely.  At  his  suggestion  the  tsar  intimated  his  intention 
to  fix  the  residence  of  the  new  primate  at  Vladimir, 


G2         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

whicli  city  was,  after  Kiev,  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  cap- 
ital of  the  empire.  Jeremiah  demurred,  and  insisted  that 
Moscow  was  the  only  proper  abode  of  the  head  of  the 
Church.  He  appealed  to  former  precedents  in  the 
East,  and  claimed  it  to  be  his  province  to  be  near  the 
sovereign.  This  was  inadmissible;  the  presence  of  a 
foreigner  at  court  in  such  intimate  relations  with  the 
tsar  would  shock  national  prejudices;  the  necessity  of 
an  interpreter  between  the  sovereign  and  the  prelate 
Avould  bring  a  third — possibly  an  indiscreet — person  into 
secrets  of  state  or  religious  polity.  Moreover,  it  would 
entail  the  forced  retirement  of  Job,  Avho  Avas  still  the 
actual  head  of  the  Church,  a  sorry  reward  for  years  of 
zealous  and  faithful  service. 

During  the  negotiations  which  ensued  the  wily  Greek 
soon  perceived  that  he  was  but  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
unscrupulous  Godounov.  He  began,  also,  to  weary  of  the 
strange,  and,  to  him,  savage  habits  and  customs  of  the 
country ;  waxing  old  and  feeble,  he  became  apprehen- 
sive, and  sighed  to  return  to  milder  climes  and  scenes  to 
which  he  had  been  accustomed.  When,  therefore,  the 
alternative  was  placed  before  him  of  a  residence  at  Vla- 
dimir or  the  appointment  of  a  native  prelate  to  fill  the 
patriarchal  throne,  he  chose  the  latter. 

A  synod  of  all  the  Eussian  bishops  was  solemnly 
convoked  at  Moscow  for  the  election,  the  result  of 
which  was  a  foregone  conclusion;  three  names  were 
submitted  to  the  tsar,  and  he  selected  the  first  on  the 
list,  that  of  Job,  the  metropolitan,  the  friend  and  faith- 
ful adherent  of  Godounov.  Jeremiah,  whose  expecta- 
tions had  been  raised  only  to  be  disappointed,  now  ear- 
nestly craved  permission  to  depart,  although  with  his 
desire  to  escape  from  Eussia  were  mingled  grave  appre- 
hensions of  the  reception  tliat  might  await  him  at  Con- 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  RUSSIAN  PATRIARCHATE.  63 

stantinople  for  his  complicity  with  these  serious  changes 
in  the  constitution  of  the  Church.  Ilis  presence  at  Mos- 
coTV  was,  however,  yet  necessary  to  add  to  the  dignity 
and  sacredness  of  the  event,  and  he  was  detained,  sorely 
against  his  will,  to  officiate  at  the  ceremony  of  installa- 
tion. As  the  elder  and  first  of  the  pastors  of  the  Eastern  1 
Church,  he  solemnly  imposed  hands  and  blessed  Job  as 
"  Chief  of  Bishops,  Father  of  Fathers,  and  Patriarch  of 
all  the  Countries  to  the  Xorth,  by  the  grace  of  God  and 
the  will  of  the  Tsar," 

A  formal  record  of  the  proceedings  was  subscribed  to 
by  the  tsar,  with  the  great  seal  of  the  State,  by  all  the  Rus- 
sian bishops  and  dignitaries  present,  by  Jeremiah  and 
the  Greek  prelates  who  accompanied  him.  It  was  there- 
in set  forth  that  ancient  Eome  had  fallen  into  heres}'^, 
and  the  Western  Church  was  polluted  by  false  doctrines ; 
that  new  Eome  was  in  the  hands  of  the  infidel  Turk, 
and  henceforth  a  third  Rome  had  arisen  at  Moscow ; 
that  the  first  oecumenical  prelate  of  the  Church  was  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  the  second  the  patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  the  third  the  patriarch  of  Moscow,  the  fourth 
the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  the  fifth  the  patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  further  declared  that  the  patriarch  of 
Moscow  should  be  elected  and  consecrated  by  the  clergy 
of  Russia,  without  any  necessity  of  reference  to  other 
authorities  of  the  Greek  Church. 

In  order  to  complete  the  hierarchy  of  the  Russian  es- 
tablishment four  metropolitan  sees  Avere  instituted — at 
Novgorod,  Kasan,  Rostov,  and  Kroutitsk — and  six  arch- 
bishops, with  eight  bishops,  were  added  to  the  ranks  of 
the  clergy. 

The  reorganization  of  the  Clmrch  thus  completed,  Jer- 
emiah, loaded  with  presents,  was  dismissed,  with  all  pos- 
sible honors,  in  the  spring  of  1589. 


Q4:         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 

Ilis  apprehensions  of  an  unfriendly  reception  at  the 
hands  of  the  vain  and  intolerant  clergy  of  the  East,  hos- 
tile to  any  intrenchment  upon  tlie  shadowy  dignity  of 
their  position,  were  fully  realized,  and  he  found  it  by  no 
means  an  easy  task  to  reconcile  his  brother  patriarchs  of 
Asia  and  Africa  to  the  proceedings  authorized  by  him. 
His  OAvn  companions  disavowed  his  acts,  regardless  of 
their  signature  to  the  record  at  Moscow,  but,  after  much 
mutual  recrimination,  the  Oriental  fathers  acquiesced  in 
the  inevitable,  and  signified  their  assent  to  what  they 
could  not  have  prevented  and  could  not  now  undo,  stip- 
ulating, however,  Avith  clerical  jealousy  of  rank,  that  the 
Eussian  patriarchate  should,  as  the  youngest,  be  fifth  in 
order  of  precedence  instead  of  third,  and  that  its  incum- 
bent should  seek  investiture  at  Constantinople. 

These  conditions  were  never  enforced,  and  within  a 
century  were  formally  abohshed. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Boris  Godounov.— The  Church  in  Poland.— Peter  Mogila.— Liberation 
of  Russia  from  the  Poles.— Philaret.— Alexis. — Nikon  and  his  Re- 
forms.— Dissent. 

Boris  Godouxov  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  power, 
screened  by  the  arm  of  the  Church  and  strong  in  his 
sovereign's  affection.  Dimitri,  last  heir  to  the  throne, 
was  secretly  assassinated  by  his  orders,  and  Feodor's 
daughter  died  in  infancy.  All  obstacles  thus  removed, 
he  waited  patiently  for  the  feeble  tsar's  death  to  seize 
upon  the  crown. 

A  successful  campaign  against  the  Crimean  Tatars  add- 
ed the  glory  of  a  warrior  to  his  fame  as  administrator. 
He  drove  the  invaders  from  the  walls  of  Moscow,  while 
the  monkish  prince  prostrated  himself  before  the  altar 
with  sublime  confidence  in  the  efficacy  of  prayer.  "  Have 
no  fears,"  he  prophesied  to  the  aged  men  and  Aveeping 
women  Avho  remained  witliin  the  beleaguered  city,  "  to- 
morrow not  a  Tatar  shall  be  in  sight." ' 

The  singular  piety  of  the  monarch  greatly  endeared 
him  to  his  devout  and  superstitious  people.  He  lost  all 
chance  of  election  to  the  throne  of  Poland  by  his  un^ 
swerving  Orthodoxy,  and  declined  the  pope's  ])roposals 
for  union  of  the  Churches  in  a  general  crusade  against 
the  Turks. 

Under  his  fostering  care  the  Church  increased  enor- 
mously in  wealth  and  influence.    Moscow  became  a 


5 


'  Karamsin,  vol.  x. ,  p.  20G. 


(30         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

"  holy  cit}" ;"  there  were  four  hundred  religious  edifices 
"vvithin  its  Avails,  and  thirty-four  within  the  precincts  of 
the  Kremlin. 

At  his  death,  in  150S,  Irene,  in  furtherance  of  her 
brother's  ambition,  retired  to  a  convent.  Fcodor  left  no 
direct  heir;  Boris  was  the  choice  of  the  nation,  and  a 
general  assembly  summoned  him  to  the  throne.  After 
repeated  refusals,  with  great  apparent  reluctance,  and 
pretending  to  yield  only  to  threats  of  excommunication 
by  the  Church,  ho  assented  to  the  popular  wish  and  was 
crowned  tsar. 

During  these  events  in  Eussia  the  Polish  Church 
had  passed  through  trj'ing  vicissitudes.  About  1520 
Jonah  II.,  an  Orthodox  prelate,  had  succeeded  Joseph 
Saltan  as  metropolitan  of  Kiev.  He  and  his  successors 
were  zealous  defenders  of  the  Orthodox  faith  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  kings  of  Poland.  Liberty  of  re- 
ligious worship  was  allowed,  and  the  independence  of  the 
Church  was  recognized  in  principle,  but  severe  pressure 
was  exerted  u])on  the  nobles  who  professed  tlie  Greek 
faith.  Their  social  and  political  privileges  were  serious- 
ly curtailed ;  they  could  not  occupy  any  of  the  higher 
offices  of  state,  nor  sit  as  senators  in  the  national  diet. 

When  Sigismund,  of  Sweden,  was  elected  king,  in  1587, 
his  zeal  for  the  Catholic  Church  led  to  more  systematic 
and  persistent  persecution  of  members  of  the  Orthodox 
communion.  Their  fidelity  to  their  creed  was  under- 
mined by  appeals  to  their  interests  and  ambition,  and 
many  of  the  clergy,  as  well  as  of  the  nobles,  became 
lukewarm  and  indifferent  to  the  fortunes  of  their 
Church. 

The  Jesuit  Poissevin  had  not  forgotten  his  ill  success 
at  the  Muscovite  court,  and,  during  the  reign  of  Ste- 
phen Batory,  he  had  urged  upon  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 


THE  ORTHODOX  CHURCH  IN  POLAND.  67 

the  policy  of  weakening  the  stronghold  of  Orthodoxy 
by  attacking  its  outposts  in  Lithuania. 

He  suggested  the  establishment  of  a  Jesuit  college  at 
Wilna,  and  translated  into  Russian  many  Avorks  of  Latin 
theology.  He  continued  his  labors  with  unremitting  zeal, 
and  earnestly  advocated  unity  of  belief  as  essential  to  the 
welfare  of  the  kingdom ;  he  insidiously  urged  upon  the 
nobles  of  Lithuania  the  advantages  they  would  gain  by 
adherence  to  the  faith  of  their  sovereign,  and  the  new 
fields  of  honor  and  distinction  thereby  to  be  opened,  and 
from  which  they  remained  debarred.  His  reasoning  was 
persuasive  and  his  arguments  cogent,  substantiated,  as 
they  were,  by  royal  and  papal  promises.  The  incipient 
and  growing  discontent,  thus  artfully  fomented,  was  fur- 
ther stimulated  by  the  severity  exercised  by  the  patriarch 
Jeremiah,  who  visited  Kiev  on  his  return  from  Moscow 
to  Constantinople.  He  endeavored  to  purify  the  Ortho- 
dox Church  of  Lithuania  by  the  removal  of  unworthy 
memljcrs  of  its  hierarchy,  and  hoped  to  impart  fresh  life 
and  vigor  by  wholesome  correction.  He  deposed  the 
metropolitan  Onicepliorus,  and  consecrated  Michael  Ra- 
gosa  in  his  stead.  The  new  primate,  yielding  to  the 
blandishments  of  the  court,  induced  the  bishops  of  his 
see  to  consent  to  union  Avith  Rome,  and  the  synod  sent 
ambassadors  to  Pope  Clement  VIII.  to  signify  their  sub- 
mission. 

In  vain  did  Jeremiah  threaten  the  apostates  with  ex- 
communication. Sigismund  assured  them  of  his  protec- 
tion, and  defied  the  patriarch's  anathema.  Te  Dcums 
were  sung  in  St.  Peter's,  and  medals  were  struck  com- 
memorative of  the  event,  but  the  results  were  not  as  sat- 
isfactory as  had  been  anticipated.  The  seceding  prel- 
ates did  not  meet  from  their  Latin  brethren  the  hearty 
recognition  they  had  expected,  and  were  not  admitted  to 


68         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

the  senate  as  equals  in  rank,  while  a  strong  o])])osition 
denounced  the  union  as  fraudulently  and  treacherously 
proclaimed.  Each  party  deliberately  anathematized  the 
other,  and  the  Church  of  Little  Kussia  was  from  this  pe- 
riod, 159G,  divided  into  the  Orthodox  and  the  Uniates, 
both  sects  preserving  the  same  foniis  and  ceremonies  of 
Avorship,  and,  at  first,  professing  the  same  creed,  differ- 
ing only  as  regards  acknowledging  or  rejecting  the  su- 
premacy of  the  pope.  Eome,  with  considerate  modera- 
tion, Avas  content,  for  the  time  being,  to  waive  questions 
of  doctrine.  The  Uniates,  exulting  in  their  success,  and 
relying  on  the  hearty  supj)ort  of  the  secular  power,  were 
eager  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  their  victory;  Dominican 
convents  were  established ;  the  Orthodox  Avere  excluded 
from  the  schools,  while  ordination  Avas  refused  to  all  save 
graduates ;  the  Orthodox  churches,  monasteries,  and  re- 
ligious establishments  Avere  seized,  and  their  revenues  con- 
fiscated ;  Orthodox  pi'elates  Avere  replaced  by  Uniates, 
until  but  a  single  bishop  of  the  Greek  religion  remained 
in  the  realm. 

The  Cossacks  of  the  Don  were  steadfast  in  their  ad- 
herence to  the  ancient  creed,  and  frequently  rose  in  arms 
for  its  defence.  The  strong  leaA^en  of  faith  among  them 
and  the  peoi)le,  kept  in  active  ferment  by  persecution, 
greatly  facilitated  the  conquest  of  Little  Russia  by  Alex- 
is Romanoff  fifty  years  later. 

In  Russia  the  brilliant  prospects  attending  Boris  Go- 
dounov's  usurpation  Avere  undergoing  a  gradual  but 
radical  change.  His  presence  on  the  throne  grated  on 
the  loyalty  of  the  Russian  peo])le  to  the  blood  of  Ruric ; 
he  Avas  not  of  the  royal  race,  but  of  comparatively  mean, 
even  of  foreign,  origin,  a  descendant  of  a  Tatar  mourza. 

The  nobles  yielded  unAvilling  obedience  to  one  of  infe- 
rior birth.    Serfdom,  Avhich  he  rigorously  enforced,  re- 


GODOUNOV'S  KEIGN.-POPULAR  DISCONTENT.  69 

voltetl  the  peasantry,  and  was  irksome  to  the  landlords. 
The  protection  which  he  accorded  to  foreigners  and  his 
encouragement  of  foreign  arts  and  sciences  were  a  terri- 
ble grievance  to  the  clergy  and  the  people.  To  Russians 
a  foreigner  was  not  only  a  stranger,  he  was  an  alien  in 
blood,  language,  and  religion.  They  divided  mankind 
into  three  categories,  and,  leaving  aside  the  "  Busurmani," 
or  Mussulmans  of  the  East,  the  remainder  of  the  human 
family  was  composed  of  the  "  Slovenie,"  or  those  having 
the  gift  of  speech — their  own  and  kindred  races  who 
could  comprehend,  or  "  speak  "  with,  each  other,  and  of 
the  "  Nyemtsi,"  or  the  "  Dumb,"  who  could  not  "  speak" 
with  them,  comprising  all  AVestern  nations.'  They  did 
not  esteem  them  Christians,  and  used  the  same  term  in- 
differently to  designate  the  heathen.  The  Russian  peo- 
ple was  the  Orthodox  people ;  their  country  was  "  Holy  " 
Russia ;  the  presence  of  a  foreigner  therein  was  pollu- 
tion, and  to  visit  foreign  lands  was  a  sin.  The  youths 
Avho  were  sent  abroad  by  Boris  for  study  were  mourned 
by  their  families  as  lost  beyond  hope. 

Boris  was  devout  in  his  religious  duties,  and  his  devo- 
tion was  called  h}^}ocrisy,  or  was  attributed  to  remorse. 
He  withdrew  from  the  eyes  of  his  subjects,  and  claimed 
veneration  as  the  vicar  of  God  on  earth;  he  ordered 
prayers  to  be  recited  in  every  household,  at  each  repast, 
"  for  the  salvation  of  the  body  and  soul  of  the  servant  of 
God,  the  Tsar,  chosen  .by  the  Eternal,  Lord  of  all  lands 
of  the  IS'orth  and  of  the  East,  the  only  Christian  mon- 
arch of  the  universe,  whom  all  other  sovereigns  obey  as 
slaves,  whose  mind  is  a  well  of  wisdom,  whose  heart  is 
full  of  love  and  mercy,""  and  his  self-exaltation  was 
deemed  sacrilegious. 


'  Haxthausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  272. 


'Karamsin,  vol.  xi.,  p.  123. 


70         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Old  stories  of  Dimitri's  assassination  -were  revived, 
and  suspicions  became  convictions ;  Boris  was  accused  of 
having  summoned  the  Tatars,  that,  in  the  danger  to  the 
empire,  his  crime  might  be  forgotten ;  a  terrible  pesti- 
lence and  famine  was  a  token  of  divine  wrath,  and  his 
beneficent  measures  to  reUeve  the  suffering  were  made  a 
reproach.  Discontent  fed  on  calumny,  and  the  country 
was  ripe  for  revolt. 

Godounov  met  the  hostile  feeling  by  harsh  and  tyran- 
nical treatment  of  all  who,  from  birth,  rank,  or  influence, 
w^ere  objects  of  suspicion.  The  Romanoffs,  who,  from  re- 
lationship with  Anastasia,  the  virtuous  wife  of  Ivan  IV., 
shared  the  popular  affection  in  which  her  memory  was 
held,  fell  into  disgrace.  Their  head,  Feodor  Niketitch, 
afterwards  the  celebrated  patriarch  Philaret,  was  forced 
into  a  monastery  as  a  tonsured  monk. 

The  apparition  of  Dimitri,  claiming  to  be  the  son  of 
Ivan  IV.,  was  the  breeze  which  fanned  into  open  flame 
the  kindling  embers  of  disaffection. 

The  Church  remained  loyal  to  the  tsar,  and  hurled  its 
anathema  against  the  pretender  as  an  unfrocked  monk 
and  arrant  impostor,  but  the  nobles  and  the  people,  weary 
of  Boris's  tyranny,  hailed  him  as  their  deliverer  and  true- 
born  lord. 

In  1603,  b}'^  the  influence  of  Claudio  Rangoni,  papal 
nuncio  at  the  Polish  court,  Dimitri  was  acknowledged  by 
King  Sigismund  as  the  rightful  tsar.  His  apparition, 
at  the  moment  when  the  struggle  in  Poland  between 
Orthodoxy  and  the  Unia  was  at  its  height,  Avas  most 
opportune  for  the  Catholic  party ;  money  and  men  were 
promised  him  upon  condition  of  his  embracing  the  Latin 
faith  ;  and  he,  nothing  loath,  agreed,  but  secretly,  in  or- 
der to  avoid  arousing  the  prejudices  of  his  Russian  sub- 
jects.  Clement  VII,,  rejoicing  at  the  prospect  of  extend- 


USURPATION  OF  THE  FALSE  DIMITRI. 


71 


ing  the  sway  of  Rome  over  the  North,  joyfully  received 
him  into  the  Church,  and  gave  him  his  benecHction. 
Supported  by  the  Poles  and  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  aided 
by  treacher}',  his  march  on  Moscow  met  "with  no  effect- 
ual opposition.  Boris,  enfeebled  by  disease,  betrayed  by 
his  generals,  and  abandoned  by  all,  "was  spared  by  death, 
in  1605,  the  final  ignominy  of  submission. 

In  the  last  terrible  moments  that  decided  the  fate  of 
the  empire  the  courage  and  constancy  of  Job,  the  patri- 
arch, may  have  faltered ;  he  is  said  to  have  proffered, 
"with  other  bishops,  his  submission  to  the  pretender,  but 
he  nobly  redeemed  this  momentary  Aveakness.  When 
Moscow,  in  flames,  proclaimed  the  do"wnf all  of  Boris,  Job 
proceeded  to  the  cathedral,  and,  while  he  Avas  officiating 
at  mass,  the  infuriated  mob  broke  into  the  sanctuary, 
seized  and  dragged  him  from  the  altar.  Job,  in  a  loud 
voice,  denounced  the  sacrilegious  intrusion,  and  the  rebel- 
lion against  the  Lord's  anointed.  "  Here,"  said  he,  "  be- 
fore this  sacred  image  of  the  Virgin,  for  nineteen  years, 
I  have  fought  the  good  fight  and  preserved  the  unity  of 
the  faith.  Xow  I  foresee  the  troubles  of  the  Church 
and  the  triumph  of  falsehood  and  impiety.  Mother  of 
God,  save  Orthodox  Russia  I"  Degraded  from  his  office, 
insulted  and  beaten,  he  was  hurried  to  confinement  in 
the  monastery  of  Staritza. 

Dimitri  signalized  his  accession  to  power  by  acts  of 
clemency,  especially  directed  towards  such  as  had  suf- 
fered from  the  tyranny  of  his  ])redecessor ;  Philaret  Ro- 
manoff became  a  recipient  of  his  favor,  and  was  made 
metropolitan  of  Rostov. 

Once  firmly  established  in  the  capital,  the  pretender 
gradually  yielded  to  his  predilection  for  foreign  man- 
ners and  customs.  He  no  longer  hesitated  to  cUsplay 
his  contempt  for  the  antiquated,  barbarous  usages  of  his 


72         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Muscovite  subjects,  or  feared  to  shock  their  national  and 
religious  prejudices.  lie  surrounded  himself  with  Poles, 
and  took  for  his  "wife  the  beauteous  Marina,  a  Polish 
princess.  To  the  horror  of  all  pious  Pussians,  and  not- 
Avithstanding  the  remonstrance  of  the  Church,  this  her- 
etic and  foreign  woman  was  croAvned  tsarina  before  her 
marriage,  before  she  had  abjured  the  Roman  faith  or 
made  profession  of  Orthodoxy.  She  encouraged  Dimi- 
tri  in  the  blind  infatuation  which  led  to  his  ruin.  He 
threw  off  the  dreary  state  and  ceremony  Avhich  hedged 
in  the  dignity  of  a  tsar ;  mocked  at  pious  superstitions, 
refusing  to  cross  himself  before  the  sacred  images  or  to 
have  his  table  blessed  and  sprinkled  with  holy  water ; 
partook  of  impure  meats,  and  carelessly  evinced  his  in- 
difference towards  the  Church  and  his  ignorance  of  eccle- 
siastical history.  He  tolerated  Lutherans,  and  welcomed 
Jesuits  at  his  court ;  allowed  the  erection  of  a  Cathohc 
church  and  the  celebration  of  the  Latin  mass  within  the 
sacred  precincts  of  the  Kremlin.  He  graciously  received 
apostolic  benediction  from  the  jiope,  and  renewed  his 
promise  of  abjuration. 

A  more  serious  act  was  the  nomination  of  Ignatius,  a 
foreigner,  as  patriarch.  This  prelate  had  been  archbish- 
op of  Cyprus ;  exiled  from  his  see,  he  had,  on  pretence 
of  suffering  for  the  faith,  imposed  upon  the  pious  credu- 
lity of  Feodor,  and  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Riazan. 
He  was  a  Greek  of  wily,  insinuating  address,  but  of  du- 
bious orthodoxy,  willing  to  be  a  pliant  tool  in  his  mas- 
ter's hands. 

Popular  discontent,  artfully  fomented  by  the  nobles, 
who  had  favored  the  pretender  only  to  compass  the 
downfall  of  Godounov,  stimulated  by  Dimitri's  sup- 
posed intention  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  pope 
over  the  Church  of  Russia  and  to  sacrifice  national  in- 


DIMITRI  SLAIN.— VASSILI  SHOUESKY,  TSAR.  73 

terests  to  those  of  Poland,  broke  out  into  open  rebel- 
lion. 

The  usurper  was  slain,  his  foreign  favorites  and  priests 
were  massacred,  and  a  council  of  boyars  proclaimed  Vas- 
sili  Shouesky  as  tsar.  The  Church  ratified  and  blessed 
the  choice.  It  deposed  the  foreign  intruder,  Ignatius, 
and  placed  Hermogenes,  a  prelate  of  unblemished  char- 
acter and  exemplary  piety,  on  the  patriarchal  throne. 

The  new  tsar  professed  ardent  devotion  to  the  Church, 
and,  to  conciliate  its  powerful  influence,  as  well  as  grat- 
ify the  religious  sentiments  of  his  subjects,  he  craved  for 
himself  and  the  whole  people  absolution  for  the  crimes 
of  treason  to  the  son  of  Godounov  and  of  submission  to 
an  impostor.  The  venerable  J ob  was  summoned  for  the 
last  time  from  his  convent  cell  for  this  solemn  ceremony. 
Blind  and  infirm,  tottering  on  the  brink  of  the  grave,  he 
stood  by  the  side  of  Hermogenes,  clad  in  the  simple  black 
gown  of  a  monk,  and  received  the  confession  of  national 
repentance.  As  former  patriarch  and  head  of  the  Church, 
he  pronounced  the  pardon  and  remission  of  the  nation's 
sin,  and  invoked  the  blessing  of  God  on  the  tsar  and  on 
Holy  Orthodox  Russia. 

Vassili  Shouesky's  reign,  thus  auspiciously  commenced, 
was  doomed  to  end  in  disaster  and  ruin. 

A  second  and  a  third  Dimitri,  and  an  impostor  pre- 
tending to  be  Peter,  son  of  Feodor,  appeared  to  claim 
the  throne.  Intestine  strife  and  foreign  invasions  by 
Poles,  Cossacks,  and  Swedes  brought  the  empire  to  the 
verge  of  destruction.  "  Mounds  of  graves,"  says  an  an- 
cient chronicle, "  dotted  the  land  of  Russia."  The  Church 
throughout  remained  loyal  to  Shouesky,  tlie  legitimate 
tsar,  and  faithful  to  the  cause  of  national  independence. 

At  Tver  the  archbishop  roused  the  people  against  the 
insurgent  bands,  and  was  slain;  at  Pskov  the  bishop. 


74       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent. 

Gennadius,  died  heartbroken  at  the  treason  of  his  city; 
Gehdition,  Bishop  of  Souzdal,  perished  in  exile  rather  than 
acknowledge  a  pretender;  Joseph,  Bishop  of  Kolomna, 
Avas  drag-o'ed  in  chains  from  town  to  town  by  another 
usurper  for  exhorting  the  marauders  to  obedience ;  at 
Novgorod  the  metropolitan  Isidore  kept  the  citizens  true 
to  their  allegiance,  and  led  them  in  a  vigorous,  though 
hopeless,  resistance  against  a  Swedish  army;  when  the 
convent  of  Solovetsk  was  summoned,  by  the  victorious 
Swedes,  to  surrender,  with  promise  of  a  garrison  for  its 
protection,  its  hegumen  Anthony  stoutly  replied,  "  The 
Lavra  needs  no  protection  from  foreign  soldiers,  and  no 
stranger  shall  ever  be  tsar  of  Russia ;"  Avhen  Rostov  was 
captured  Philaret  Romanoff,  the  bishop,  refused  to  aban- 
don his  flock,  and  endeavored  to  protect  it  by  the  power 
of  the  Church ;  seized  by  the  victorious  rebels  while  he 
was  administering  communion  at  the  altar,  dragged  to 
the  presence  of  their  chief,  the  third  Dimitri,  the  "  Rob- 
ber of  Touschina,"  whom  Marina  had  joined  and  married, 
he  defied  his  authority ;  the  great  monastery  of  the  Troitsa 
successfully  maintained  for  months  a  siege  against  an  army 
of  thirty  thousand  Poles,  poured  out  its  treasures  without 
stint,  and  the  blood  of  its  brethren  like  water  for  the  de- 
fence and  relief  of  the  capital.  "When  Yassili  Shouesky, 
driven  from  the  throne,  was  a  captive  in  a  Polish  jail ;  when 
Moscow  fell,  and  Ilermogenes,  deposed  by  the  invader, 
was  thrust  into  prison  to  die  of  starvation ;  when  the  em- 
pire was  thus  without  a  tsar  and  the  Church  without  a 
head,  the  Holy  Lavra  of  St.  Sergius  refused  to  submit  or 
to  acknowledge  a  foreign  prince,  and,  under  the  leadership 
of  its  archimandrite  Dionysius  and  of  its  bursar  Abram 
Palitsin,  bravely  continued  the  almost  hopeless  struggle 
for  the  national  existence  and  the  national  faith.  "  Its 
light,"  says  a  chronicle,  "  shone  like  a  sun  over  all  Russia." 


PATRIOTISM  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH.  75 

The  record  of  the  Church  during  these  fearful  years 
of  anarchy  and  disaster  is  indeed  glorious.  Not  one  of 
its  officers  gave  adherence  to  a  pretender  or  acknowl- 
edged the  authority  of  a  foreign  usurper.  When,  in 
1610,  Yassili  was  deposed  by  the  Poles,  forced  to  submit 
to  tonsure,  and  immured  in  a  monastery,  Hermogenes, 
the  patriarch,  raised  his  voice  in  protest ;  when,  subse- 
quently, in  a  council  of  rebellious  boyars  and  Polish  no- 
bles, some  proposed  the  false  Dimitri  as  tsar,  and  oth- 
ers successfully  urged  the  election  of  Vladislas,  son  of  the 
King  of  Poland,  again  the  venerable  prelate  remonstrated, 
and  implored  the  council  neither  to  recognize  a  rebel  nor 
to  sanction  the  choice  of  a  heretic  and  foreigner. 

From  the  Troitsa  monastery  the  courageous  Dionysius, 
by  emissaries  and  letters,  made  earnest  and  constant  ap- 
peal to  the  patriotism  of  the  people.  The  Polish  gov- 
ernor of  Moscow  and  the  rebellious  Russian  nobles  or- 
dered Hermogenes,  as  head  of  the  Church,  to  forbid 
any  national  uprising.  "  I  will  forbid  it,"  was  the  reply, 
"  when  I  see  Vladislas  baptized  and  the  country  freed 
from  Poles ;  if  this  is  not  to  be,  then  I  enjoin  upon  all 
to  rise,  and  I  absolve  them  from  their  oath  to  the  king's 
son.  I  will  give  my  blessing  to  all  Avho  are  ready  to  die 
for  the  Orthodox  faith." 

Moscow  was  sacked  and  destroyed  by  the  Polish  sol- 
diery. Hermogenes  was  deposed,  and  suffered  martyr- 
dom in  prison.  Ignatius,  formerly  a  creature  of  the 
first  pretender,  Dimitri,  now  willing  to  be  the  minion  of 
a  foreign  invader,  was  again  seated  on  the  patriarchal 
throne,  amid  the  smoking  ruins  of  the  capital.  Univer- 
sal anarchy  reigned  supreme,  and  yet  there  was  hope  for 
Eussia  in  the  undying  attachment  of  the  people  for  their 
native  soil  and  their  national  religion,  and  from  among 
the  people  was  to  arise  their  deliverer. 


7G         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

An  obscure  citizen  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  a  butcher,  Koz- 
ma  Minime,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  behalf  of 
Holy  Eussia  and  the  persecuted  faith.  In  rough  and 
ready  eloquence  he  appealed  to  the  nation ;  "  Let  us  rise," 
said  he,  "  one  and  all,  young  and  old ;  the  time  has  come 
for  us  to  risk  our  lives  for  the  truth,  but  this  even  is  not 
enough,  Ave  must  sell  our  houses  and  lands,  pledge  our 
wives  and  children,  to  raise  up  armies  for  the  deliver- 
ance of  our  country."  As  he  spoke  so  he  acted  ;  he  gave 
all  he  possessed  to  the  common  cause,  and  the  people, 
electrified  by  his  appeal,  shamed  by  his  example,  rallied 
at  his  call,  and  chose  him  for  their  chief,  with  the  title  of 
"  The  Chosen  One  of  all  the  Eussian  Empire."  Minime 
was  gifted  with  sound  sense,  ready  tact,  utter  disinter- 
estedness, and  self-abnegation.  lie  gave  as  leader  to  the 
army  Prince  Dimitri  Pojarsky,  an  able  soldier,  a  true 
and  honest  patriot.  A  solemn  fast  was  enjoined  upon 
the  whole  land,  and  this  furious  outburst  of  national  feel- 
ing, stimulated  by  religious  enthusiasm,  Avas  universal  and 
irresistible.  Traitors  and  pretenders  vanished  before  it ; 
foreign  iuA'aders  Avere  driven  from  city  to  city.  Mos- 
coAV  was  recoA^ered,  and,  in  1G13,  a  great  council  of  the 
clergy  and  people,  in  harmonious  accord,  renounced  alle- 
giance to  Vladislas,  and  acclaimed  Michael  Eomanoff, 
son  of  Philaret,  as  tsar.  "When  Moscoav  A\'as  retaken 
Ignatius  had  fled  to  Poland  for  safety,  and,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  patriarch,  Michael  Avas  crowned  by  three 
metropolitans,  one  of  Avhom,  Jonah  of  the  Steeps,  Avas 
placed  in  charge  of  the  patriarchate  until  more  tranquil 
times  might  permit  a  regular  election  of  a  head  of  the 
Church. 

The  struffffle  against  the  Poles  and  the  Swedes  still 
continued,  with  varying  success.  The  Trinity  monastery 
was  again  besieged  by  a  foreign  army,  but  patriotism 


ROMANOFF  DYNASTY.— PHILAEET  PATRIARCH.  77 

and  religion  Tvere  triumphant,  and,  under  the  walls  of 
the  sacred  fortress,  a  truce  was  finally  concluded,  though 
at  costly  sacrifice  of  territory,  and  the  empire  gained 
breathing-time  in  which  to  recruit  its  shattered  strength. 

The  young  tsar  Michael,  educated  m  a  convent,  under 
a  pious  mother's  eye,  was  by  natural  inclination,  as  well 
as  from  early  training,  of  a  devout  and  religious  charac- 
ter, and  the  interests  and  welfare  of  the  Church  were  the 
earliest  objects  of  his  sohcitude.  The  first  step  towards 
its  reorganization  was  the  election  of  a  head  to  replace 
the  fugitive  Ignatius.  Philaret  Eomanoff  was  the  com- 
mon choice  of  the  tsar,  the  clergy,  and  the  people.  It 
was  approved,  also,  by  Theophanes  of  Jerusalem,  who, 
sent  by  his  brother-patriarchs  of  the  East  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Orthodox  in  Lithuania,  visited  Moscow,  and 
gladly  lent  his  aid  to  restore  order  and  disciphne  in  the 
Church  of  Russia. 

Worn  out  by  the  hardships  and  misfortunes  of  his 
checkered  life ;  in  youth  a  victim  of  Godounov's  tyran- 
ny, made  a  monk  against  his  will,  confined,  banished, 
driven  from  his  diocese  by  violence,  long  separated  from 
friends  and  family,  for  nine  years  a  captive  in  a  Pohsh 
prison,  now,  in  old  age,  restored  to  his  native  land,  Phil- 
aret's  only  desire  was  to  end  his  days  in  peace,  and  he 
yielded  a  reluctant  consent  to  assume  the  high  office  and 
grave  responsibilities  pressed  upon  him.  By  liis  eleva- 
tion to  the  ecclesiastical  throne  "  the  extraordinary  spec- 
tacle, never  before  or  since  seen  in  the  annals  of  the  world, 
was  presented  of  a  father  as  patriarch  and  a  son  as  sover- 
eign governing  the  empire," '  an  event  most  character- 
istic of  the  nation  and  typical  of  the  indissoluble  connec- 
tion in  Russia  of  the  Clmrch  and  State. 


'  Mouravief,  p.  177. 


78         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


Animated  by  the  same  high  motives,  united  in  mutual 
affection  and  confidence,  the  tsar  and  the  primate  labored 
in  harmony  for  the  restoration  of  civil  prosperity  and  of 
religious  order  and  discipline. 

The  long  period  of  anarchy  and  confusion  had  seri- 
ously aggravated  the  evils  arising  from  errors  in  the 
Church  books,  ritual,  and  ceremonies.  All  previous  at- 
tempts to  correct  them  had  been  mcomplete  or  unsatis- 
factory. A  thorough  reform  was  indispensable  to  check 
abuses,  eradicate  erroneous  or  superstitious  practices,  and 
preserve  the  integrity  and  spirituality  of  Church  wor- 
ship. Michael  urged  upon  the  clergy  the  necessity  of 
undertaking  anew  the  Avork  of  expurgation  and  correc- 
tion, and  was  supported  by  the  patriarchs  Pliilaret  and 
Theophanes.  Any  change  was,  however,  repugnant  to 
the  people  and  to  the  more  bigoted  of  the  clerical  body ; 
they  were  strongly  attached  to  Avhat  they  conceived  to 
be  the  ancient  forms,  and  angrily  opposed  any  innova- 
tions. The  controversy  on  the  subject  was  violent  and 
bitter,  and  this  reformation  made  comparatively  httle 
progress.  IVfuch,  however,  was  done  to  extend  the  pow- 
er and  influence  of  the  Church.  Loftier  titles  and  great- 
er dignity  were  conferred  upon  the  patriarch,  and  the 
privileges  of  the  clergy,  dating  back  to  Vladimir  the 
Great,  were  renewed  and  increased. 

The  property  and  ministers  of  the  Church  were  ex- 
empt from  civil  dues.  The  officers,  servants,  and  serfs  of 
the  patriarch  were  made  amenable  to  him  or  to  his  court 
alone,  save  for  crimes  involving  life,  and  u])on  these  the 
patriarchal  court  first  pronounced.  The  great  monaste- 
ries of  the  Troitsa,  of  the  Ascension,  and  of  the  Novo- 
dyevitchi,'  were  subjected  to  his  direction.    These,  and 


'  Convent  of  the  "  Maidens." 


REFORMS  IN  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH. 


79 


all  ecclesiastical  establishments  appertaining  to  the  pa- 
triarchate, with  their  lands,  clergy,  and  following,  were 
placed  under  his  special  charge,  and,  in  the  event  of  civil 
suits,  were  to  be  judged  by  the  court  of  the  Great  Pal- 
ace, that  is,  before  the  sovereign  in  person.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  privileges  of  the  clergy  was  accompanied  by 
a  renewal  of  the  restriction  estabhshed  by  Ivan  III.,  ren- 
dered advisable  by  the  enormous  increase  of  their  wealth ; 
the  monasteries  were  prohibited  from  further  acquisition 
of  landed  property  without  special  authorization. 

Philaret  was  as  solicitous  for  the  internal  discipline  of 
the  Church  as  for  its  material  prosperity,  and  sliared  the 
desire  of  its  more  enlightened  jirelates  to  free  it  from 
superstition  and  error.  Efforts  in  this  direction,  led  by 
Dion3'sius,  the  celebrated  and  patriotic  superior  of  the 
Troi'tsa  monastery,  had,  immediately  prior  to  Philaret's 
elevation  to  the  primacy,  been  checked  by  clerical  intol- 
erance ;  Dionysius,  with  his  adherents,  had  been  subject- 
ed to  severe  punishment  for  alleged  tam})ering  with 
sacred  mysteries.  This  persecution  Avas  stopped,  the 
reformers  were  released,  and  encouraged  to  persevere  in 
their  labors. 

The  pious  zeal  of  the  patriarch,  stimulated  by  the 
fierce  religious  struggle  in  Lithuania  and  Poland,  led 
him  to  draw  a  stronger  line  of  demarkation  between  the 
Churches  by  re-establishing  a  custom,  Avhich  had  fallen 
into  disuse  and  was  afterwards  abrogated,  of  rebap- 
tizing  converts  from  the  Latin  faith  upon  their  admis- 
sion to  tlie  Greek  communion. 

The  Church,  in  remote  provinces  of  the  empire,  felt 
his  paternal  care.  The  archbislioprics  of  Kasan  and  As- 
tracan  were  reorganized ;  in  them,  and  in  Siberia,  regular 
ecclesiastical  administration  replaced  chaos  and  anarchy. 
The  savage  and  predatory  population  of  these  countries, 


80      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent. 

which  had  relapsed  into  barbarism,  were  brought  under  - 
the  civilizing  influences  of  religion. 

Philaret's  anxiety  for  the  interests  of  the  Church  was 
not  restricted  by  the  limits  of  the  empire.  The  close 
spiritual  connection  he  maintained  with  Novgorod  hast- 
ened its  final  reunion  to  Russia,  and  his  sympathy  was 
constantly  directed  towards  the  suffei'ing  Orthodox  pop- 
ulation of  the  neighboring  realm. 

After  the  reorganization  of  the  Church  in  Russia  the 
Eastern  patriarch  proceeded  on  his  mission  to  Poland. 
There  active  and  cruel  persecution  by  the  Uniate  and 
Catholic  prelates,  aided  by  the  weakness  and  vacillation 
of  King  Sigismund,  had  reduced  the  Orthodox  Church  to 
the  direst  extremity.  For  upwards  of  twenty  years  it 
had  been,  dejirived  of  a  head  and  of  all  means  of  united 
action.  Its  dioceses  were  without  bishops ;  its  clergy,  pur- 
sued with  systematic  severity,  Avere  forbidden  to  otiiciate, 
were  imprisoned,  tortured,  and  slain,  but  the  great  body 
of  its  adherents  among  the  people,  together  with  most 
of  the  Cossack  population,  were  ardently  attached  to 
their  religion.  They  evinced  their  devotion,  not  merely 
by  patient  endurance,  but  also  by  frequent  rebellion 
against  the  intolerance  of  their  masters.  Theophanes 
was  at  first  received  with  scant  courtesy  by  the  king, 
but,  after  reference  to  Constantinople,  his  dignity  as  pa- 
triarch was  recognized,  and  he  Avas  allowed  to  remain  at 
Kiev.  Proceeding  with  exemplary  moderation  and  cau- 
tion, he  succeeded  gradually  in  obtaining  permission  to 
open  schools  for  his  clergy  and  to  establish  charitable 
and  religious  institutions  for  members  of  his  Church. 
Encouraged  by  the  immunity  attending  his  early  efforts 
and  by  the  renewed  life  and  vigor  aroused  with  return 
of  confidence  and  hope  for  the  future,  he  steadily  pur- 
sued the  Avork  of  reorganization.    In  1G20  he  installed 


THE  ORTHODOX  CHURCH  IN  POLAND.— PERSECUTION.  81 

Job  Boretsky  as  metropolitan  of  Kiev,  and  appointed 
bishops  to  the  various  dioceses.  Having  thus  re-estab- 
lished the  Church,  with  its  hierarchy  complete,  Theoph- 
anes  returned  to  Jerusalem. 

This  period  of  tranquillity  was  but  the  precursor  of  a 
more  violent  storm.  Sigismund,  always  weak  and  easily 
swayed,  yielded  to  the  influence  of  his  Romish  advisers, 
and  permitted  a  revival  of  the  contest  between  the  hos- 
tile factions,  one  struggling  for  existence,  the  other  striv- 
ing for  domination.  The  Catholics  and  Uniates,  strong 
in  the  supj^ort  of  royal  authority,  pursued  the  Orthodox 
with  all  the  rancor  and  ferocity  of  clerical  fanaticism. 
Their  schools  were  suppressed ;  their  churches  closed  or 
turned  into  inns,  barracks,  and  mosques ;  their  clergy 
were  de])rived  of  protection  from  the  mob,  and  prevent- 
ed from  officiating;  congregations  were  dispersed  by 
force ;  the  dead  were  left  without  burial  rites ;  sanctua- 
ries and  cemeteries  were  rifled  and  desecrated.  The  peo- 
ple, goaded  beyond  endurance,  rose  against  their  opjjres- 
sors,  and  exercised  fearful  reprisals.  The  Cossacks  mas- 
sacred the  Catliolics  at  Kiev ;  Jehosaphat,  the  Cniate 
archbishop  of  Polotsk,  infamous  among  the  Orthodox 
for  his  bloodthirsty  cruelty,  and  canonized  at  Rome  for 
his  righteous  zeal,  was  killed  by  a  mob,  and  the  vicar  of 
the  Uniate  metropohtan  Avas  drowned. 

The  two  primates,  Job  the  Orthodox  and  Joseph  the 
Uniate,  convoked  rival  synods,  and  were  engaged  in 
mutual  excommunications  when  the  death  of  Sigismund 
checked  the  fever  of  persecution.  His  son  and  successor, 
Vladislas  IV.,  signalized  his  accession  to  the  throne  by 
an  edict  of  toleration.  Freetlom  of  worship,  with  the 
right  of  electing  their  metropolitan,  was  granted  to  the 
Orthodox,  and  the  ancient  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  at 
Kiev,  was  restored  to  them. 
6 


82        THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Job  died  in  1G32.  Peter  Mogila,  -who  succeeded  him, 
was  a  man  eminently  qualified,  by  his  firmness  and  de- 
cision of  character,  as  well  as  by  erudition  and  piety,  to 
be  head  of  the  Church  in  difficult  times. 

This  distinguished  prelate,  son  of  Simon  Ivanovitch, 
hospodar  of  Moldavia,  was  educated  in  Paris,  and  in  his 
youth  had  served  with  distinction  in  the  wars  of  the 
Poles  against  the  Turks ;  renouncing  the  career  of  arins, 
he  entered  the  monastery  of  the  Petcherski,  at  Kiev,  and 
soon  rose  to  be  its  superior.  Appointed  exarch  by  Cyril 
Lucar,  patriarch  of  Constantinoi)le,  he  boldly  and  cour- 
ageously upheld  the  rights  of  the  Greek  Church  at  the 
Diet  of  Warsaw.  To  his  able  advocacy  was  mainly  due 
the  liberty  of  conscience  proclaimed  by  King  Vladis- 
las  and  the  restoration  to  the  Orthodox  of  the  churches, 
convents,  and  estates  Avrested  from  them  by  the  Uniates. 
He  established  libraries  and  printing-presses,  reopened 
seminaries  and  schools  for  the  clergy,  and  sent  chosen 
pupils  to  study  in  foreign  universities.  The  celebrated 
academy  of  Kiev,  founded  by  him  in  1G34,  was  a  lasting 
memorial  of  his  name. 

During  the  reign  of  Yladislas  the  Orthodox  Church 
enjoyed  a  short  respite  from  persecution,  during  which 
Peter  engaged  in  active  theological  controversy  Avith  its 
enemies.  He  issued  from  his  presses  the  writings  of  the 
Greek  fathers  and  books  of  the  Church ;  he  restored  the 
purity  of  the  ritual,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  the  archi- 
mandrite, Isaiah  Trophimovitch,  he  drew  up  a  confes- 
sion of  the  Orthodox  faith,  in  order  to  authoritatively 
establish  the  cardinal  points  of  its  doctrine,  and  clear  away 
the  subtile  errors  and  conflicting  distinctions  thrown 
around  it  by  the  "w-ritings  of  Jesuit  and  Koman  theolo- 
gians. This  confession  Avas  revised  by  a  council  of  bish- 
ops, and  sent  to  Constantinople  for  approval  and  confir- 


PETER  MOGILA'S  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH. 


83 


mation.  Peter's  former  patron,  Cyril  Lucar,  -was  no 
longer  alive  to  encourage  his  efforts ;  this  energetic  and 
learned  Cretan  had,  in  his  extensive  travels  throughout 
Europe,  become  imbued  with  the  reformatory  tendency 
of  the  age,  and,  in  accordance  with  it,  had  attempted  the 
regeneration  of  the  Eastern  Church ;  he  Avas  five  times 
deposed  from  and  reinstated  upon  the  patriarchal  throne, 
and  was  finally  murdered  by  the  Turks,  in  1628.  Par- 
thenius  was  patriarch  when  the  confession  of  Peter  Mo- 
gila  Avas  referred  to  the  Eastern  fathers.  At  a  synod 
convened  at  Jassy,  in  1G43,  it  was  amended  by  Meletius 
Striga,  of  Constantinople,  and  in  its  revised  form  was  ap- 
proved, and  again  confirmed,  by  the  council  of  1672,  under 
the  direction  of  the  patriarch  Dositheus  of  Jerusalem. 

This  confession  was  generally  received  by  the  Russian 
Church,  and  Avas  formally  adopted  by  Adrian,  Patriarch 
of  MoscoAV  from  1690  to  1700.  With  the  exception  of 
the  doctrines  regarding  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  and 
the  Double  Procession,  it  Avas  in  general  accord  Avith  the 
teachings  of  the  Eoman  Church,  toAvards  which  the  the- 
ologians of  Kiev  Avere,  from  the  influence  of  their  sur- 
roundings, more  strongly  inclined  than  their  Muscovite 
brethren.  'No  other  authoritative  expression  of  belief 
Avas  put  forth  until  1766;  but  Avhile  Peter's  confession 
has  been  considered  correct  in  its  fundamental  principles, 
it  has,  since  that  date,  been  modified  by  Russian  prelates, 
and  the  doctrines  of  the  Russian  Church,  as  now  set 
forth  by  its  catechisms,  issued  under  authority  of  Phila- 
ret.  Metropolitan  of  Moscoav  from  1820  to  1867,  and  used 
in  its  schools  since  1839,  may  be  summarized  as  foUoAA's : ' 

'  This  summary  has  been  taken  from  an  article  on  the  Grceli  Church 
in  the  Encyclopedia  Brittnnka,  vol.  xi.,  p.  158,  by  Kcv.  T.  M.  Lin(lsa3% 
D.D.  Small  capitals  denote  differences  from  Roman  Catholic,  italics 
differencea  from  Protestant,  doctrine. 


84         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUUCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


Christianity  is  a  divine  revelation,  communicated  to 
mankind  through  Christ ;  its  saving  truths  are  to  be 
learned  from  the  Eible  and  tradition,  the  former  hav- 
ing been  Avritten  and  the  latter  maintained  uncorrupted 
through  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible  belongs  to  the  Church,  which  is  taught 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  every  believer  may  read  the 
Scriptures. 

According  to  the  Christian  revelation,  God  is  a  Trin- 
ity ;  that  is,  the  Divine  Essence  exists  in  Three  Persons, 
perfectly  equal  in  nature  and  dignity,  the  Father,  the 
Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  Holy  Ghost  pkoceeds 
FROM  THE  Father  only.  Besides  the  Triune  God  there 
is  no  other  object  of  divine  worship,  hut  homage  {virep- 
SuvXta)  may  he  paid  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  reverence 
(SowXi'a)  to  the  saints  and  to  their  pictures  and  relics. 

Man  is  born  with  a  corrupt  bias  which  was  not  his  at 
creation ;  the  first  man,  when  created,  possessed  immor- 
tality, PERFECT  WISDOM,  AND  A  WILL  REGULATED  BY  REA- 
SON.   Through  the  first  sin  Adam  and  his  posterity  lost 

IMMORTALITY,  AND  HIS  WILL  RECEIVED  A  BIAS  TOWARDS  EVIL. 

In  this  natural  state  man,  who,  even  before  he  actually 
sins,  is  a  sinner  before  God  by  original  or  inherited  sin, 
commits  manifold  actual  transgressions;  hut  he  is  not 
ahsolutcly  to ithoiit power  of  will  towards  good,  and  is  not 
always  doing  evil. 

Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  became  man  in  two  natures, 
which,  internally  and  inseparably  united,  make  one  Per- 
son, and,  according  to  the  eternal  purpose  of  God,  has 
obtained  for  man  reconciliation  with  God  and  eternal 
life,  inasmuch  as  He,  by  His  vicarious  death,  has  made 
satisfaction  to  God  for  the  world's  sins,  and  this  satis- 
faction WAS  PERFECTLY  COMMENSURATE  WITH  THE  SINS  OF 
THE  WORLD. 


PRESENT  DOCTRINES  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH. 


85 


Man  is  made  partaker  of  reconciliation  in  spiritual  re- 
generation, which  he  attains  to,  being  led  and  kept  by 
the  Holy  Ghost.  This  divine  help  is  offered  to  all  men 
without  distinction,  and  may  he  rejected.  In  order  to 
attain  salvation,  man  is  justified,  and,  when  so  justified, 

CAN  DO  NO  MOKE  THAN  THE  COJIMANDS  OF  GoD.     He  may 

fall  from  a  state  of  grace  through  mortal  sin. 

Regeneration  is  offered  by  the  word  of  God  and  in 
the  sacraments,  which,  under  visible  si^jns,  communicate 
God's  invisible  grace  to  Christians  when  administered 
'■^  cum  intentioneP 

There  are  seven  mysteries  or  sacraments.  Baptism 
entirely  destroys  original  sin.  In  the  Eucharist  the  true 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  substantially  present,  and 
the  elements  are  changed  into  the  suhstance  of  Christ, 
whose  body  and  blood  are  corporeally  partaTcen  of  by  com- 
municants. All  Christians  should  receive  the  bread 
and  the  wine. 

The  Eucharist  is  also  an  expiatory  sacrifice.  The  new 
birtli,  when  lost,  may  be  restored  through  repentance, 
which  is  not  merely  (1)  sincere  sorrow,  but  also  (2)  con- 
fession of  each  individual  sin  to  the  priest,  and  (3)  the 
discharge  of  penances  imposed  by  the  priest  for  the  re- 
moval of  the  temporal  punishment  which  may  have  been 
imposed  by  God  and  the  Church.  Penance,  accompanied 
by  the  judicial  absolution  of  the  priest,  mahes  a  true 
sacrament. 

The  Cliurch  of  Christ  is  tlie  fellowship  of  all  those 

AVHO  ACCEI'T  AND  PROFESS  ALL  THE  AliTICLES  OF  FAITH  TRANS- 
MITTED BY  THE  APOSTLES  AND  APPROVED  BY  GeNERAL  SyN- 

ODs.  Without  this  visible  Church  there  is  no  salvation. 
It  is  under  the  abiding  influence  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
therefore  cannot  err  in  matters  of  faith. 

Specially  appointed  persons  are  necessary  in  the  ser- 


86         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


vice  of  the  Church,  and  they  form  a  thrcpfold  order,  dis- 
tinct,jure  divino,from  other  Christians,  of  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons.    The  four  pateiarchs,  of  equal  dignity, 

HAVE  THE  HIGHEST  RANK  AMONG  THE  BISHOPS,  and  the  Msh- 

ops,  united  in  a  General  Council,  represent  the  Church, 
and  iifallihhj  decide,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  all  matters  of  faith  and  ecclesiastical  life.  All 
ministers  of  Christ  must  be  regularly  called  and  appoint- 
ed to  their  office,  and  are  consecrated  by  the  sacrament 
of  orders.    Bishops  m  ust  he  unmarried,  and  priests  and 

DEACONS    MUST  NOT  CONTRACT  A  SECOND  MARRIAGE.     To  all 

priests  in  common  belongs,  besides  the  preaching  of  the 
word,  the  administration  of  the  six  sacraments— bap- 
tism, CONFIRMATION,  PENANCE,  EUCHAIilST,  MATRIMONY,  UNC- 
TION OF  THE  SICK.  The  Vishops  alone  can  administer  the 
sacrament  of  orders. 

Ecclesiastical  ceremonies  are  part  of  the  divine  service  ^ 
most  of  them  have  apostolic  oi'if/in  /  a7id  those  connected 
with  the  sacrament  must  not  he  omitted  hy  priests  binder 
pain  of  mortal  sin. 

The  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine  and  "of  the  Horde  be- 
yond the  Falls  "  were  ardently  attached  to  the  Orthodox 
faith,  and  had  frequently  risen  in  its  defence.  Although 
pacified  by  the  promises  of  Yladislas,  they  were  again 
aroused  to  revolt  by  renewed  persecution  on  the  part  of 
the  liomish  and  Uniate  clergy,  and  religious  antagonism 
led  to  a  long  and  bloody  struggle,  during  which  these 
disaffected  subjects  of  the  Polish  king  made  repeated  ap- 
peals to  Eussia  for  assistance.  Early  in  the  century  Job, 
Metropolitan  of  Kiev,  had  urged  the  tsar  to  extend  his 
protection  over  the  Ukraine,  but  Russia  was  too  weak  to 
cope  with  Poland.  Michael  dismissed  the  Cossacks  with 
ample,  but  empty,  assurances  of  sympathy. 

Alexis,  son  of  Michael,  vigorously  pursued  his  father's 


STRUGGLE  BETWEEN  CHURCH  AND  STATE.— NIKON.  87 

task  of  pacifying  and  reorganizing  the  empire,  still  torn 
by  intestine  contentions  and  groaning  under  onerous,  but 
necessary,  taxation.  He  convened  a  national  assembly 
for  the  formation  of  a  code  which  should  embody  all 
the  regulations  requisite  for  the  efficient  government  of 
both  the  State  and  the  Church.  While  inheriting  his 
fathers  pious  and  devout  disposition,  he  felt  the  necessi- 
ty of  curbing  the  excessive  power  of  the  Church,  which 
threatened  to  overshadow  that  of  the  crown.  To  this 
end  he  estabUshed  the  "  Monastery  Tribunal,"  consisting 
of  lay  members,  which  was  empowered  to  deal  with  mat- 
ters concei^ning  the  clergy  and  their  estates,  over  which 
hitherto  the  patriarchal  court  had  held  jurisdiction.  He 
further  ordered  that  the  domains  and  acquisitions  of  the 
Church  and  clergy,  Avhich  had  enormously  increased,  in 
violation  of  the  ordinance  of  Ivan  III.,  should  be  made 
the  subject  of  investigation. 

Then  commenced  in  Russia  the  mighty  struggle  be- 
tween the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers,  in  which  the 
final  victory  was  to  remain  Avith  the  State,  and  then 
appeared  the  great  reformer  and  champion  of  the 
Church,  a  man  destined  to  exercise  a  deep  and  lasting 
influence  upon  the  Russian  nation  and  the  national 
Church. 

Kikita,  who  subsequently  bore  the  name  of  Nikon, 
was  born  of  obscure  parentage,  in  the  district  of  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  in  1G13.  In  early  hfe  he  felt  an  imperative 
call  to  enter  the  Church,  and  secretly  left  his  home  to 
become  a  monk.  At  his  father's  earnest  entreaty  he  re- 
turned, married,  and  Avas  ordained  a  parish  priest ;  his 
children  died  in  infancy,  and  tliis  affliction  seemed  to 
him  a  summons  from  on  high  to  renounce  the  world. 
He  persuaded  his  wife  to  enter  a  convent,  and  took  upon 
himself  vows  of  strictest  reclusion  in  the  Solovetsk  mon- 


88         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

asterv,  on  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea.  In  this  forlorn 
and  clesokite  retreat  of  ahnost  perpetual  winter  he  passed 
many  years,  living  apart  from  the  brotherhood,  on  a  des- 
ert island,  mortifying  the  flesh  by  rigid  discipline  and 
fasting.  Disagreeing  Avith  his  fellow-monks  as  to  the 
employment  of  the  convent  funds,  and  unable  to  submit 
to  dictation,  he  sought  refuge  at  the  Kojeozersk  monas- 
tery, where,  by  his  austere  life  and  exemplary  devotion, 
he  gained  wide-spread  reputation  for  sanctity.  Made 
superior  of  the  monastery,  he  was  called  to  the  capital 
by  the  duties  of  his  charge,  and  while  there  he  officiated 
and  preached  before  the  tsar.  His  striking  pereonal 
appearance,  his  gigantic  stature,  his  earnestness  and 
fiery  eloquence,  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the 
young  and  pious  monarch.  Alexis,  hearing  of  his  holy 
life,  wished  to  retain  him  near  his  person,  and  made 
him  arcliimandrite  of  the  X ovospassky '  monastery  at 
Moscow. 

The  strength  and  originality  of  Nikon's  character, 
the  bold  frankness  of  his  disposition,  his  eager,  self-sao- 
rifising  zeal,  his  lofty  and  far-sighted  genius,  both  in  po- 
litical and  ecclesiastical  matters,  his  indomitable  courage 
and  independence,  his  generous  s])irit  and  high  sense  of 
justice,  made  him  a  fit  counsellor  for  the  sovereign.  He 
has  been  variously  judged  by  his  countr\'men  and  pos- 
terity ;  he  has  been  compared  to  Thomas  a,  Bccket  and 
Wolsey,  his  ambition  condemned  as  dangerous  to  the 
State,  his  pride  and  arrogance  as  insufferable,  but  the  sav- 
age, barbarous  condition  of  the  peo])le  wliom  he  was  called 
to  govern,  the  disordered  state  of  the  country,  the  igno- 
rance and  superstition  of  the  clergy  and  the  degradation 
of  the  Church,  must  not  be  forgotten.    His  faults  were 


'  Of  the  Saviour,  from  Spass,  Saviour. 


NIKON.— METROPOLITAN  OF  NOVGOROD.  89 

those  of  a  great  and  noble  nature ;  liis  object  was  not 
personal  or  selfish ;  his  energies  were  exerted  for  tlie  ag- 
grandizement of  the  Church  of  which  he  was  the  faith- 
ful pastor,  for  its  elevation  and  purification  from  error ; 
his  patriotism  was  sincere,  and  his  devotion  to  the  tsar 
never  faltered,  even  during  the  years  of  persecution  and 
suffering  Avhich  closed  his  life. 

Alexis  took  pleasure  in  his  conversation  and  compan- 
ionship, and  leaned  upon  him,  in  utter  confidence,  as  a 
trusty  servant,  a  true  and  honest  friend.  He  made  Mm 
Metropolitan  of  IS'ovgorod,  and  then,  wearying  at  the 
separation,  called  him  constantly  to  his  side  for  consulta- 
tion and  advice ;  he  dehghted  to  do  him  honor,  and  gave 
him  the  lands  about  the  beautiful  Lake  of  Valdai,  where 
Kikon  built,  upon  a  wooded  island,  the  Iversky  Convent, 
as  a  resting-place  on  his  long  and  frequent  journeys  to 
and  from  the  capital.  In  his  capacity  of  metropolitan 
he  was,  by  special  favor,  investe<:l  with  extraordinary 
powers ;  his  court  was  authorized  to  adjudicate  all  eccle- 
siastical matters  within  his  see,  and  its  jurisdiction  was 
extended  over  all  cases  in  wliich  the  Church  or  the  clergy 
were  concerned.  "While  at  JSTovgorod  his  administration 
was  distinguished  by  characteristic  energy ;  he  visited 
the  prisons  and  dispensed  justice  in  person ;  he  watched 
with  ])aternal  care  over  the  material,  as  Avell  as  over  the 
spiritual,  welfare  of  his  people.  During  a  terrible  fam- 
ine he  spent  liis  revenues  in  building  hospitals  and  houses 
of  refuge,  and  in  relieving  the  poor  and  suffering.  "Wlien 
a  rebellious  outbreak  threatened  the  imperial  authority, 
and  the  governors  of  Pskov  were  massacred  by  the  po]> 
ulace,  he  was  the  uncompromising  defender  of  tlie  law ; 
at  the  risk  of  his  life,  ho  faced  the  insurgents,  and  gave 
shelter  to  the  fugitive  magistrates;  maltreated  by  the 
mob,  and  left  for  dead  in  the  street,  he  no  sooner  recov- 


90         'I'lIE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ercd  consciousness,  tlian  he  appeared  again  in  their  midst, 
exliorting  them  to  submission.  lie  prevented  the  be- 
trayal of  Novgorod  to  the  Swedes,  and  hurled  the  anath- 
emas of  tlie  Church  against  the  traitors  to  tlie  tsar ;  his 
firmness  and  courage  gave  time  for  succor  to  arrive  and 
preserved  the  city  to  the  empire,  while  his  subsequent 
mild  and  juthcious  measures  effectually  quelled  the  re- 
bellion. 

His  energy  in  civil  matters  was  equalled  only  by  his  zeal 
in  affairs  of  the  Church.  He  insisted,  among  the  clergy, 
upon  cleanliness  of  person  and  apparel,  decency  of  life, 
and  purity  of  morals ;  he  encouraged  the  decoration  of 
churches,  chapels,  and  altars,  and  surrounded  the  ritual 
with  extraordinary  ceremony  and  pomp ;  he  regulated 
anew  the  order  of  divine  service,  and  introduced  harmo- 
nious chants  from  Greece  and  the  East,  with  well-drilled 
choirs  of  soft  Cossack  voices ;  he  condemned  the  idola- 
trous worship  of  the  sacred  pictures  and  their  meretri- 
cious adornment  by  foreign  art ;  gifted,  himself,  with  flu- 
ent eloquence,  he  supplemented,  by  preaching,  the  monot- 
onous reading  of  the  lessons. 

His  imperious,  domineering  disposition  had  created 
many  enemies,  and  the  changes  he  introduced  into  the  ser- 
vice, although  they  were  a  return  to  the  original  prac- 
tices of  the  Greek  Church,  had  aroused  a  feeling  of  strong 
antagonism  on  the  part  of  the  people  and  of  many  of  the 
clergy,  who  were  fanatically  attached  to  their  own,  and, 
in  their  opinion,  the  ancient,  forms,  but  this  hostility 
dared  not  manifest  itself  by  open  opposition,  and  found 
vent  only  in  secret  murmurings.  Nikon,  strong  in  the 
affection  and  support  of  the  tsar,  distinguished  for  the 
purity  and  austerity  of  his  life  and  for  untiring  zeal,  was, 
notwithstanding  latent  discontent,  called  by  unanimous 
desire  to  the  patriarchal  throne.    Aware  of  the  enmity 


NIKON.— PATRIARCH  OF  RUSSIA. 


91 


he  had  excited,  yet  conscious  of  high  purpose  and  deter- 
mined to  persevere,  he  consented  to  accept  the  post  only 
upon  condition  that  his  control  over  the  Church  sliould 
be  absolute  and  unfettered,  and  should  be  so  declared  by 
imperial  decree. 

His  elevation  to  the  primacy  was  signahzed  by  more 
energetic  action,  and  his  measures  of  reform  aimed  high- 
er than  at  mere  restoration  of  accurate  ceremonial  ob- 
servance, lie  punished  with  relentless  severity  all  trans- 
gressions of  the  clergy,  all  indifference  and  sloth  in  the 
discharge  of  their  duties,  andj  especially,  he  set  his  face 
against  their  besetting  sin,  intemperance.  Heads  of  mon- 
asteries and  high  chgnitaries,  as  vrell  as  simple  monks, 
were  made  to  feel  the  weight  of  his  displeasure ;  the 
distant  convents  of  Siberia  were  filled  with  dissolute, 
wretched  priests,  condemned  without  ajipeal  and  ban- 
ished without  mercy.  He  endeavored  to  give  hfe  to  the 
Church,  and  to  create  a  sense  of  the  moral  obligation  im- 
posed by  religion.  As  supreme  pontiif,  he  continued  his 
former  habit  of  expounding  and  preaching.  In  the  ac- 
count of  Macarius's  travels  there  is  frequent  allusion  to 
the  surprise  of  the  Eastern  prelates  at  this  innovation, 
of  which  they  were  witnesses,  and  to  the  long  and  "  copi- 
ous "  patriarchal  sermons,  "  until  our  spirits  were  broken 
within  us  the  tedious  while."  Their  chronicler,  Paul  of 
Aleppo,  also  expatiates,  with  pious  joy,  upon  the  extraor- 
dinary devotion  manifested  by  the  emperor  and  the  peo- 
ple. When  Alexis  took  the  field  against  the  Poles  "  the 
patriarch  stood  before  him,  and  raised  his  voice  in  ])rayer 
for  the  emperor,  making  a  beautiful  exordium  with  ])ar- 
ables  and  proverbs  from  the  ancients  .  .  .  and  with  much 
prolixity  of  discourse,  running  on  at  his  leisure,  like  a 
copious  stream  of  running  water.  ...  No  one  seemed  to 
find  fault  with  him,  or  to  be  tired  of  his  discourse ;  but 


92         THE  IIUSSIAX  CllUIiCII  AND  KUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

all  were  silent  and  attentive  as  if  each  were  a  pauper  or 
a  slave  before  his  master.  But  what  most  excited  our 
admiration  was  to  see  the  emperor  standing  with  his 
head  uncovered  while  the  patriarch  wore  his  crown  be- 
fore him ;  the  one  with  his  hands  crossed  in  humility, 
the  other  displaying  them  with  the  action  and  boldness 
of  an  orator  addressing  his  auditors ;  the  one  bowing  his 
bare  head  in  silence  to  the  ground,  the  other  bending  his 
towards  him  with  the  crown  upon  it,  speaking  to  him ; 
the  one  guarding  his  senses  and  breathing  low,  the  other 
making  his  voice  to  ring  like  a  loud  bell ;  the  one  as  if 
he  were  a  slave,  the  other  as  his  lord !  What  a  sight  for 
us !  God  knows  our  heai'ts  ached  for  the  emperor ;  Avas 
not  this  singular  humility  ?"  And  upon  another  occa- 
sion Paul  relates :  AVe  returned  to  our  monastery  as- 
tonished and  wonder-struck  at  the  constancy  and  firm- 
ness of  this  nation,  from  the  emperor  to  their  very  infants. 
We  entered  the  church  as  the  clock  struck  three,  and  did 
not  leave  it  till  ten  ;  having  stood  there  with  them  about 
seven  hours,  on  our  legs,  on  the  cold  iron  pavement,  en- 
during the  most  severe  cold  and  piercing  frost.  But  we 
were  consoled  for  all  this  by  witnessing  the  admirable 
devotion  of  this  people.  Nor  was  the  patriarch  satisfied 
Avith  the  ritual  and  the  long  service,  but  he  must  crown, 
all  with  an  admonition  and  a  copious  sermon.  God  grant 
him  moderation !  His  heart  did  not  ache  for  the  em])oi*or 
nor  for  the  tender  infants !  What  should  we  say  to  this 
in  our  country  ?  Would  to  God  we  were  thus  i)atient ! 
Without  doubt  the  great  Creator  has  granted  to  this  na- 
tion to  be  His  peculiar  people,  and  it  becomes  them  to  be 
so  because  all  their  actions  are  according  to  the  spirit, 
and  not  to  the  flesh,  and  they  are  all  of  this  disposition." 

Of  Nikon's  influence,  and  of  the  trust  reposed  in  him 
by  the  tsar,  and  of  the  dignity  and  state  he  assumed, 


NIKON  AT  THE  HEIGHT  OF  HIS  POWER.  93 

this  eye-witness  goes  on  to  say :  Before  the  emperor  s 
departure  (against  the  Poles)  he  appointed  a  vice-regent 
and  many  ministers ;  the  patriarch  he  placed  as  inspect- 
or over  all,  so  that  no  affair,  whether  superior  or  inferior, 
should  be  decided  without  his  advice,  nor  Avithout  their 
declaring  it  before  him  every  morning  of  every  day  as  it 
occurred.  Thus,  even  in  the  frosty  season,  we  observed 
the  greatest  among  the  ministers,  the  emperor's  Vakeel 
or  Deputy,  repairing  to  the  public  office.  Whenever  it 
happened  that  the  ministers  were  not  all  assembled  in 
the  cUvan  when  the  patriarch's  bell  rang  for  them  to  re- 
pair to  his  palace — as  the  door  is  alwaj's  closed  during 
prayers — those  archons  who  Avere  too  late  were  obliged 
to  Avait  at  his  door  in  the  excessiA'e  cold  until  he  should 
order  them  to  be  admitted ;  ...  on  their  being  permitted 
to  enter,  the  patriarch  would  turn  to  the  images,  and,  in 
secret,  repeat  a  prayer,  Avhilst  they  bowed  to  him  all  to- 
gether to  the  ground,  with  their  heads  uncoA'ered,  as 
they  remained  until  they  Avent  out.  Thus  he  conA'ersed 
Avith  them  standing,  w^hile  they  presented  to  him  their 
accounts  of  everything  that  Avas  passing.  To  each  he 
gave  ansAver  concerning  every  affair,  commanding  them 
what  they  should  do.  By  Avhat  we  observed  of  the 
grandees  of  the  empire  they  do  not  much  fear  the  em- 
peror, nor  entertain  much  dread  of  him ;  they  rather  fear 
this  patriarch,  and  by  many  degrees  more.  His  prede- 
cessors in  the  patriarchal  dignity  did  not  interfere  at  all 
in  affairs  of  the  State,  but  this  man,  from  his  ingenuity, 
comprehension,  and  knoAvledge,  is  accomplished  in  every 
art  and  skill  as  regards  the  affairs  of  the  Church  and  the 
State,  and  all  temporal  affairs  AvhatsoeA'er." ' 
In  the  plenitude  of  his  power  Nikon  steadily  pursued 


'  Macarius,  vol.  ii-  pp.  51-74. 


9i         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

the  reformation  of  the  Church,  and,  as  tlie  chief  means 
to  this  end,  he  determined  upon  the  purification  of  its 
service  and  ritual,  and  the  correction  of  the  sacred  books. 
This  undertaking,  in  which  the  tsar  evinced  the  strongest 
interest,  commenced  under  Yassili  IV.  and  continued  at 
different  periods,  had  never  been  satisfactorily  accom- 
plished. Former  errors  remained,  and  fresh  ones  had 
been  ingrafted  upon  the  old,  which,  by  time  and  suffer- 
ance, had  taken  deeper  root.  The  churches  and  monas- 
teries throughout  the  empire  were  ransacked  for  ancient 
manuscripts ;  missions  were  sent  to  the  Holy  Places  of 
Palestine,  and  to  Constantinople  for  information  and  au- 
thoritative records.  Paisius,  the  Byzantine  patriarch,  and 
his  oecumenical  brethren  offered  their  co-operation,  and 
supplied  the  Avritings  of  the  Greek  fathers,  the  early 
canons  and  creeds  of  the  Church,  and  decisions  of  Coun- 
cils. They  proposed  the  adoption  of  the  Confession  of 
Peter  Mogila  as  the  accurate  embodiment  of  Orthodox 
doctrine,  and  urged  adherence  to  the  rules  of  the  primi- 
tive Church,  as  well  in  rites  and  ceremonies,  as  in  dogma. 
The  presence  of  Macarius,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  of 
other  Eastern  prelates,  gave  additional  solemnity  to  the 
proceedings  of  the  synod,  convened  in  1654,  over  which 
Nikon  and  the  tsar  presided. 

The  points  of  divergence  which  had  gradually  arisen 
between  the  Russian  and  the  other  Greek  churches  re- 
lated more  to  matters  of  ceremonial  observance  than  to 
those  of  doctrine.  Trivial  as  they  may  appear  in  the 
light  of  modern  criticism,  they  Avere  then  held  to  be  of 
vital  importance,  involving  the  very  essence  of  the  faith, 
and  onl}^  by  the  practice  of  the  primitive  Eastern  Church 
could  the  truth  regarding  them  be  authoritatively  estab- 
lished. "I  am  a  Russian,  son  of  a  Russian,"  declared 
Nikon,  "  but  my  faith  and  my  religion  are  Grecian." 


EUSSIAN  AND  EASTERN  CHURCHES.— DIFFERENCES.  95 

The  principal  differences  to  be  settled  were :  whether  a 
triple  halleluia  should  be  pronounced,  in  honor  of  the  Trin- 
ity, or  a  doxible  halleluia,  in  reference  to  the  double  nat- 
ure of  Christ ;  whether  processions  around  the  churches 
should  march  against  or  with  the  sun ;  whether  it  be 
rigid  or  wrong  to  shave  the  beard ;  whether  at  mass 
there  should  be  upon  the  altar  one  or  many  loaves — the 
Russian  used  seven ;  whether  the  name  Jesus  should  be 
spelled //s5<9z<5  ovissous;  whether,  in  praj^er,  the  Saviour 
should  be  addressed  as  our  God  or  as  the  Son  of  God ; 
whether  it  be  right  to  say  of  God,  Avhose  reign  is  eternal, 
or  whose  reign  shall  he  eternal ;  whether  the  cross  should 
have  four  or  eight  points ;  and  whether  the  sign  of  the 
cross  should  be  made  with  three  fingers  extended,  as  de- 
noting the  Trinity,  and  two  closed,  in  reference  to  Christ's 
double  nature,  or  with  two  fingers  extended,  in  allusion  to 
the  double  nature,  and  three  closed,  in  token  of  the  Trinity. 

The  hidden  and  t}^ical  significance  of  these  ceremonies 
and  symbols  constituted  their  special  importance.  The 
Greeks,  in  each  case,  followed  the  former,  and  the  Russians 
the  latter,  of  the  above  alternatives,  and  in  these  respects 
a  change,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  Greek  practice,  was 
ordained  by  the  synod,  and  was  confirmed  by  subsequent 
councils  in  IGGG  and  1G67. 

The  Russian  form  of  the  cross,  however,  prevailed  in 
the  empire :  the  lower  branch  is  not  at  right  angles  with 
the  stem,  but  is  slanting,  in  consequence  of  a  tradition 
that  Christ  was  deformed,  with  one  leg  longer  tlian  the 
other,  and  the  lower  branch  of  the  cross,  upon  which  his 
feet  rested,  was  made  to  meet  this  personal  defect.  In 
popular  belief,  the  Saviour  was  made  to  share  to  the  ut- 
most the  degradation  of  humanity,  and,  in  the  words  of 
Isaiah,  "  he  hath  no  form  nor  comeliness ;  ...  he  is  de- 
spised and  rejected  of  men ;  ...  he  was  despised  and  wo 


9G         THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

esteemed  him  not ;  .  .  .  we  did  esteem  liim  stricken,  smit- 
ten of  God,  and  afflicted." ' 

During  the  Tatar  subjugation  the  cross  on  the  churches 
-was  replaced  by  the  crescent,  and,  after  their  expulsion, 
the  crescent  was  not  removed,  but  was  surmounted  by  a 
cross,  in  significance  of  the  triumph  of  Christianity. 

In  addition  to  the  changes  enumerated  above,  another 
decree  of  the  council,  secured  by  Nikon's  influence, 
evinced  the  larger  spirit  of  Christian  charity  which  char- 
acterized his  efforts  at  reform ;  the  validity  of  baptism 
by  the  Latin  Church  was  recognized,  w^hich,  although 
contrary  to  the  decision  of  his  great  predecessor  Phil- 
aret,  and  to  the  practice  at  Constantinople,  was  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rules  of  the  churches  in  Palestine.  The 
alterations  in  the  service,  decided  upon  after  much  and 
stormy  discussion,  were  at  once  promulgated  and  en- 
forced throughout  the  empire.  The  peo])le,  filled  with 
superstitious  veneration  for  familiar  forms,  received  these 
innovations  with  strong  dislike,  as  an  impious  profana- 
tion of  what  they  deemed  most  sacred,  and  a  very  large 
body  of  the  clergy  shared  this  feeling. 

Nikon's  enemies  fomented  the  spirit  of  discontent,  but 
his  power  was  yet  too  firmly  established  for  any  suc- 
cessful resistance.  The  members  of  the  clergy  who  ven- 
tured to  oppose  his  plans  v,^ere  made  to  feel  the  impotency 
of  their  endeavors  by  banishment  and  prison.  Paul, 
Bishop  of  Kolomna,  was  arbitrarily  deprived  of  his  dio- 
cese and  exiled  to  Siberia,  Avithout  trial  by  his  peers,  and 
in  violation  of  ecclesiastical  law. 

Nikon's  intolerant  exercise  of  authority,  his  severity 
towards  the  clergy,  his  overbearing  arrogance  towards 
all,  increased  the  growing  hostility  to  his  poAver ;  but, 


'  Ilarc,  "  Studies  in  Russia,"  p.  231. 


OPPOSITION  TO  NIKON. 


97 


conscious  of  the  rectitude  of  his  intentions,  and  confident 
in  his  influence  over  tlie  tsar,  he  disregarded  and  set  at 
naught  the  machinations  of  his  enemies. 

AVhile  thus  zealously  engaged  in  ecclesiastical  reform, 
his  restless  energy  found  other  spheres  of  action  in  civil 
matters.  He  was  a  patriot  as  well  as  churchman,  and 
eagerly  favored  all  measures  conducing  to  the  aggran- 
dizement of  Eussia,  especially  where  the  interests  of  the 
Church  were  likewise  involved.  The  supplication  of  the 
Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine  for  protection,  formerly  pre- 
sented under  Michael,  and  now  renewed  to  Alexis,  ap- 
pealed to  his  sympathies  on  both  civil  and  religious 
grounds,  and  received  his  earnest  sup])ort.  The  conse- 
quent war  with  Poland,  advocated  by  him,  resulting  in 
the  conquest  of  Little  Russia  and  its  reunion  to  the  em- 
pire, added  to  his  influence  and  increased  his  arrogance. 

Ilis  arbitrary  government,  while  left  as  regent  during 
the  absence  of  the  tsar  in  the  field,  his  haughtiness  and 
impatience  of  advice  in  civil,  as  well  as  in  ecclesiastical, 
affairs,  excited  the  bitter  animosity  of  the  great  lords 
and  bo3'ars,  who  submitted  with  ill-concealed  repugnance 
to  the  supremacy  of  a  low-born  peasant.  A  double  dan- 
ger threatened  the  all-powerful  favorite — jealousy  and 
hatred  on  the  part  of  the  great  nobles  and  the  high 
dignitaries  of  the  Church  ;  superstitious  fears  and  a  holy 
horror  of  sacrilegious  innovations  on  the  part  of  an  igno- 
rant and  fanatical  people  and  clergy.  Reverses  and  dis- 
aster in  foreign  Avars  followed  the  season  of  success,  and 
the  national  humiliation  was  laid  at  his  door ;  pestilence 
and  famine  visited  the  land,  and  his  impious  tampering 
with  divine  institutions  was  cursed  for  bringing  God's 
wrath  upon  the  country.  The  affection  and  confidence 
of  the  tsar  was  Nikon's  only  support,  and  this  was  soon 
to  fail.  Time,  separation,  and  misfortune  had  weakened 
7 


98         THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


the  monarch's  trust  and  dependence  upon  his  counsel; 
his  o])j)osition  to  the  Monastery  Court,  established  by 
Alexis,  and  his  sturdy  assertion  of  the  prerogatives  of 
the  Church,  excited  the  tsar's  displeasure,  who  began  to 
chafe  under  the  arrogance  of  his  favorite,  and  to  resent 
his  assumption  of  authority ;  palace  intrigues  under- 
mined his  position,  the  tsaritsa  joined  his  adversaries, 
and,  jealous  of  his  influence  over  her  husband,  artfully 
fomented  the  growing  coolness  between  tliem.  By  care- 
fully-contrived and  skilfully-veiled  slights  Nikon's  im- 
petuous disjiosition  Avas  incited  to  bursts  of  furious  indig- 
nation, rendered  the  more  violent  by  the  tsar's  apparent 
indifference  and  tardy  response  to  his  complaints,  and 
Alexis,  himself  by  no  means  joatient,  grew  Aveary  of  his 
intolerant  and  inconvenient  friend.  An  open  rupture 
Avas  inevitable;  at  a  state  rece])tion  a  follower  of  the 
patriarch  Avas  abused  and  struck  by  a  noble  of  the 
court ;  Is  ikon's  demand  for  reparation  Avas  ignored,  ad- 
mittance to  the  monarch  denied,  and  the  supercilious 
demeanor  of  the  boyars,  encouraged  by  Alexis's  indiffer- 
ence, soon  roused  the  hot  anger  of  the  impatient  prelate 
to  explosion.  While  yet  smarting  at  this  indignity,  he 
Avas  soon  after  rejiroached,  at  the  altar,  by  a  ])owerful 
lord,  for  his  pride  and  presumption,  Avhereupon,  perhaps 
hoping  by  extreme  measures  to  reviA'e  the  sym])atiiy  of 
his  former  friend  and  protector,  he  doffed  his  pontifical 
robes  for  the  simple  garb  of  a  monk,  laid  doAvn  his  pas- 
toral staff,  and  renounced  his  office.  Humbling  himself 
before  the  people,  he  proclaimed  his  sins  and  unworthi- 
ness,  sent  his  abdication  to  the  tsar,  craved  permission  to 
retire,  and,  coA'ering  his  head  Avith  his  mantle,  sat  doAvn 
upon  the  altar  steps  to  aAvait  a  reply.  Alexis  Avas  trou- 
bled, but  sent  no  responsive  message.  Kikon's  enemies 
triumphed,  and,  broken  in  spirit,  he  departed  on  foot  to 


NIKON'S  DOWNFALL.— HIS  STRUGGLE  FOR  POWER,  99 

the  Iversky  Convent,  from  whence  he  renew^ecl  his  resig- 
nation of  the  patriarchate,  begged  forgiveness  for  his 
unauthorized  absence,  and  asked  permission  to  retain 
charge  of  the  monasteries  which  had  been  under  his 
control. 

The  sacrifice  thus  made  in  anger  he  sorely  repented, 
and  would  fain  have  recalled,  but  it  was  too  late ;  the  see 
was  declared  vacant,  his  enemy,  Pitirim  of  Novgorod, 
appointed  its  guardian,  and  Nikon  Avas  left  in  solitude 
to  brood  over  his  disgrace. 

Boyars  and  bishops,  rejoicing  in  their  liberation  from 
his  intolerable  domineering,  leagued  together  to  com- 
plete his  downfall.  Fearing  the  influence  of  his  personal 
intercession  with  the  tsar,  in  whose  heart  there  yet 
lurked  some  tenderness  for  his  former  friend,  they  pre- 
vented any  interview,  save  in  their  presence ;  they  baited 
and  worried  the  hasty,  impetuous  priest  to  fresh  bursts 
of  violence  and  temper ;  his  private  papers  were  seized 
for  proof  of  undue  assumption  of  authority  and  dignity; 
he  was  accused  of  repeating  the  one  hundred  and  ninth 
psalm  in  his  daily  convent  service,  and  of  directing  its 
curses  against  the  tsar ;  his  indignant  denials,  his  fierce 
invective,  his  vehement  vindication  of  his  acts  and  the 
recital  of  his  wTongs,  were  made  fresh  pretexts  for  de- 
nunciation. For  eight  years  Nikon  maintained  the  con- 
test, with  unabated  energy  and  independence ;  his  spirit 
was  not  tlismayed,  nor  his  courage  daunted ;  he  anathe- 
matized his  adversaries  for  his  personal  insults  and  in- 
juries, but,  more  than  all,  for  the  scandal  brought  upon 
the  Church ;  he  loudly  asserted  his  loj'alty,  and  declared, 
"  I  have  not  cursed  the  tsar,  but  I  have  cursed  you,  ye 
noble  prelates  of  the  Church  ;  and,  if  you  care  to  hear  it, 
I  will  have  the  same  Avords  sung  over  again  in  your 
ears."   He  could  not  forget  that  he  had  been,  and,  save 


100       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

for  his  own  rash  act,  Avas  still  patriarch  of  Russia,  and 
he  refused,  by  deed  or  Avord,  to  recognize  any  successor ; 
meanwhile  the  government  of  the  Church  was  intrusted 
to  a  board  of  bishops,  presided  over  by  Paisius  Ligarides, 
a  Greek  prelate,  Avhoin  Is  ikon  had  befriended  in  former 
years,  but  who  was  now  his  bitter  enemy. 

Alexis,  weary  of  the  protracted  struggle,  called  upon 
the  Eastern  patriarchs  to  form  a  tribunal  before  which 
to  arraign  Nikon  for  trial. 

At  this  juncture  the  interposition  of  a  friend  at  court 
aroused  hopes  of  reconciliation.  The  boyar,  Is  ikita  Zui- 
zin,  of  his  own  authoritv,  and  trusting  to  the  great  love 
Alexis  had  borne  the  patriarch,  urged  him  to  return,  with- 
out warning,  on  the  festival  of  St.  Peter,  the  first  metro- 
politan of  Moscow,  and,  ignoring  the  past,  to  invite  the 
tsar  to  join,  according  to  ancient  custom,  in  the  prayers 
at  the  cathedral.  Kikon,  meditating  upon  this  sugges- 
tion, retired  to  rest  upon  the  stone  couch  of  his  hermit 
cell ;  as  he  slept  he  saw,  in  a  vision,  the  long  line  of  his 
predecessors  rise,  one  by  one,  from  their  graves,  at  the 
call  of  the  "wonder-worker,"'  Jonah.  Passing  before 
him,  they  stretched  out  their  hands,  raised  him  up,  and 
seated  him  on  the  patriarchal  throne.  Comforted  by  his 
dream,  he  departed  secretly,  by  night,  to  Moscow,  en- 
tered the  cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  saluted  the  holy 
relics,  and  took  his  stand  in  the  patriarch's  ])lace,  clothed 
in  his  robes  and  holding  the  pastoral  staff.  The  me- 
tropolitan, Jonah  of  Rostov,  who  had  succeeded  Pitirim 
as  guardian  of  the  see,  was  amazed  to  find  him  there  at 
early  dawn,  but  Avelcomed  him  with  respect,  and  was 
sent  by  In  ikon  to  the  palace  to  announce  his  arrival,  as 
if  from  a  journey,  and  to  invite  the  tsar  to  receive  his 
blessing  and  to  assist  at  the  prayers.  Alexis,  taken  by 
surprise,  hesitated,  and  summoned  his  ministers  for  con- 


NIKON'S  FINAL  DISGRACE.— HIS  TRIAL.  IQl 

sultation.  The  moment  was  critical,  as  a  meeting  of  the 
friends  under  such  circumstances  might  jeopardize  all 
that  had  been  accomplished ;  to  prevent  it  was,  for  Ni- 
kon's adversaries,  a  matter  of  life  or  death,  and  their  in- 
fluence prevailed.  The  tsar  refused  to  go  to  him,  and 
sent  orders  that  he  should  retire  to  the  Voskresensk' 
Monastery,  and  there  await  the  assembling  of  the  eccle- 
siastical council. 

Nikon  obeyed  the  harsh  commands.  His  disgrace  was 
complete,  and,  despairing  of  reconciliation  with  his  for- 
mer patron,  he  endeavored,  but  in  vain,  to  make  terms 
with  his  enemies.  He  was  shorn  of  all  authority,  and 
placed  under  strict  supervision  until  the  council  should 
decide  upon  his  fate. 

This  assembly,  the  most  august  in  the  annals  of  the 
Church  of  Russia,  met  in  the  halls  of  the  Kremlin  in 
1667.  The  patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch,  eight 
metropolitans  of  Greek  churches  without  the  empire,  the 
archbishops  of  Sinai  and  "Walachia,  were  joined  to  all 
the  great  dignitaries  of  the  Eussian  hierarchy,  and  the 
tsar  presided  in  person. 

Cited  to  appear  before  them,  Nikon,  prior  to  his  de- 
parture from  the  Yoskresensk  monastery,  received  ex- 
treme unction,  as  if  in  presentiment  of  approaching 
death.  Mindful  of  his  dignity  and  conscious  of  his  in- 
nocence, he  entered  the  council-chamber,  arrayed  in  the 
insignia  of  his  rank,  Avith  the  cross  borne  before  him ;  as 
no  seat  had  been  reserved  for  him  with  the  other  patri- 
archs, he  refused  to  occupy  a  lower  place,  and,  proudly 
facing  his  enemies  with  unmoved  countenance,  his  gigan- 
tic stature  towering  above  all  around  him,  he  remained 
standing  to  listen  to  the  accusations  read  out  by  the  tsar. 


'  Convent  of  the  Resurrection. 


102       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 

He  was  charged  witli  tyranny  and  oppression,  with  arbi- 
trar}'^  and  illegal  exercise  of  power,  with  interference  in 
matters  beyond  his  province,  with  malversation  of  eccle- 
siastical revenues,  with  capricious  abandonment  of  his 
office,  with  frivolously  preventing  the  election  of  a  patri- 
arch after  his  own  abdication,  with  offending  the  majesty 
of  the  sovereign  and  calumniating  the  clergy,  thus  bring- 
ing disorder  u])on  the  State  and  scandal  upon  the  Church. 
\  For  the  first  time  in  eight  years  the  two  friends  stood 
again  face  to  face,  and  Alexis's  heart  was  moved  with 
pity  and  compassion.  As  he  read  the  long  list  of  accu- 
sations, tears  flowed  from  his  eyes,  at  the  recollection  of 
their  former  friendship  and  loving  intercourse ;  yielding 
to  his  emotion,  he  descended  from  the  throne,  and,  to  the 
consternation  of  the  hostile  assemblage,  took  Nikon  by 
the  hand,  and  earnestly  abjured  him :  "  Oh,  most  holy 
father,  why  hast  thou  put  u])on  me  such  a  reproach,  pre- 
paring thyself  for  the  council  as  if  for  death  ?  Thinkest 
thou  that  I  have  forgotten  all  thy  services  to  me,  and  to 
my  family,  during  the  plague,  and  our  former  friendship  ?" 
The  danger  of  reconciliation  at  the  last  hour  seemed  im- 
minent, and  the  affecting  scene  was  interrupted  by  vio- 
lent denunciations  on  the  part  of  the  patriarch's  ene- 
mies, anxious  to  destroy  the  effect  of  tender  memories 
of  the  past.  Nikon  was  speedily  aroused  to  anger,  and, 
in  the  bitterness  of  his  heart,  gave  full  course  to  his  in- 
dignation, loudly  denying  the  charges  brought  against 
him,  and  vehemently  asserting  the  duties  and  preroga- 
tives of  his  office ;  he  fiercely  inveighed  against  his  ac- 
cusers, and  defied  them  to  prove  aught  against  him. 
"  Why  not  bid  them  take  up  stones  ?  so  they  might  soon 
put  an  end  to  me,  but  not  with  words,  though  they 
should  spend  nine  years  more  in  collecting  them."  The 
critical  moment  had  passed,  and  the  threatening  danger 


NIKON  CONDEJINED.— HIS  SENTENCE. 


103 


■was  averted  by  the  tumult ;  although  the  deliberations 
of  the  assembly  continued  for  many  days,  Alexis  and 
Kikon  parted  then  never  to  meet  again. 

The  primate's  condemnation  was  a  foregone  conclu- 
sion ;  he  was  sentenced  to  be  degraded  from  his  rank  to 
the  condition  of  a  simple  monk,  and  to  do  penance  in  a 
distant  monastery  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Alexis 
refused  to  witness  his  humihation,  and  the  council  assem- 
bled, for  the  last  time,  in  a  small  church,  beyond  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  palace.  When  summoned  to  hear  its  decis- 
ion, Xikon  still  maintained  his  proud  and  lofty  bearing ; 
"  Why,"  said  he,  do  you  degrade  me  in  this  httle  chap- 
el, without  the  presence  of  the  tsar,  and  not  in  the  cathe- 
dral, where  he  and  you  implored  me  to  ascend  the  throne  ?" 
He  reproached  the  Eastern  patriarchs  for  their  mean  sub- 
serviency to  power,  in  expectation  of  reward;  "Take 
these,"  said  he,  stripping  pearls  from  his  vestments, 
which  they  removed  in  pursuance  of  the  sentence ; 
"  they  will  help  support  you  under  Turkish  oppression ; 
get  you  home ;  better  stay  there  than  go  wandering  like 
beggars  about  the  world." 

It  was  midwinter,  and  the  place  of  his  banishment  was 
far  distant ;  the  tsar  sent  him  money  and  furs  for  the 
journey,  and  asked  his  forgiveness  and  blessing ;  but  the 
indomitable  prelate  sternly  refused  all  gifts,  and  with- 
held his  benediction.  "He  loveth  not  blessing,  and 
therefore  it  shall  be  far  from  him,"  was  his  reply.  To 
a  noble,  who  mockingly  swept  up  the  dust  he  shook  from 
his  feet,  he  said,  pointing  to  a  comet  then  llaming  in  the 
sky — the  broom-star,  as  it  is  called  in  Russian — "  God's 
besom  shall  sweep  you  all  away." 

To  the  people,  who,  in  spite  of  prejudices  against  his 
reforms,  reverenced  him  for  the  hohness  and  austerity  of 
his  life,  and,  pressing  round,  urgently  besought  his  bless- 


10-i       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSLVN  DISSENT. 

ing,  he,  like  the  martyred  Philip,  spoke  but  a  single 
■word,  "  Pray."  Still  retaining  his  pontifical  staff  and 
mantle,  which  the  patriarchs,  "  for  fear  of  the  people," 
had  not  ventured  to  take  from  him,  sheltered  from  the 
cold  by  a  cloak  thrown  over  him  by  a  pitying  bystander, 
he  was  hurried  away  to  close  confinement  in  the  Thera- 
pontoff  Monastery,  on  the  bleak  shores  of  the  White 
Lake. 

Nikon's  career  marks  a  great  epoch  in  the  history  of 
the  Kussian  Church. 

Ilis  purpose  and  aim  have  been  variously  estimated ; 
loudly  extolled  as  a  reformer  and  saint,  he  has  been  as 
severely  condemned  as  an  ambitious  and  narrow-minded 
bigot.  An  impartial  study  of  his  life  would  seem  to 
show  that  he  was  animated  by  a  double  motive,  and  ad- 
dressed the  wonderful  energies  of  his  powerful  genius  to 
a  double  end.  On  the  one  hand,  to  the  reformation  of 
the  Church  by  purifying  it  from  error,  by  endeavoring 
to  impart  spiritual  life  to  the  whole  fabric,  while  restor- 
ing its  ceremonies  and  ritual,  and  by  elevating  the  char- 
acter of  the  clergy  in  morals  and  intelligence ;  on  the 
other,  to  the  liberation  of  the  Church  from  civil  control 
by  freeing  it  from  debasing  subjection  and  submission, 
in  spiritual  matters,  to  the  temporal  power,  and  by  as- 
serting its  independence  within  its  special  domain. 

The  whole  course  and  practice  of  Nikon's  life  bear  ev- 
idence to  his  solicitude  for  reform  in,  and  of,  the  Church ; 
in  this  cause  his  zeal  knew  no  languor,  and  only  the  un- 
tiring perseverance  and  savage  energy  he  displayed,  only 
the  granite-like  obduracy  and  firmness  of  purpose  he 
evinced,  could  hope  to  triumph  over  the  besotted  igno- 
rance, prejudice,  and  superstition  he  encountered.  His 
personal  example  as  priest,  prelate,  and  pontiff,  the  se- 
verity of  the  discipline  he  shared  and  enforced,  the  re- 


NIKON'S  CAREER.— Ills  PURPOSE  AND  ITS  RESULTS.  105 

forms  lie  inaugurated,  his  encouragement  of  learning, 
are  recognized,  and  his  lofty  conception  of  the  mission 
and  prerogatives  of  the  Church  is  stated  boldly,  and  with 
rugged  eloquence,  in  his  voluminous  replies  to  the  council. 

While  recognizing  the  duty  of  submission,  in  all  tem- 
poral matters,  to  constituted  authority,  he  earnestly  main- 
tained the  independence  of  the  Church  in  spiritual  affairs. 
He  appealed  to  the  ancient  ordinances  of  the  "  a])ostle-like  " 
Vladimir,  re-enacted  by  successive  tsars,  and  confirmed 
even  by  Tatar  khans.  Taking  higher  ground,  he  averred 
that  "the  pontificate  is  more  honorable  and  a  greater 
principahty  than  the  empire  itself ; . . .  the  priest  is  seated 
very  much  higher  than  the  king.  For,  though  the  throne 
of  the  tsar  may  appear  honorable  from  the  precious 
stones  set  in  it  and  the  gold  with  which  it  is  overlaid, 
nevertheless  they  are  only  the  things  of  the  earth,  which 
he  has  received  power  to  administer,  and  beyond  this  he 
has  no  power  whatever.  But  the  throne  of  the  priest- 
hood is  set  in  heaven  ;  .  .  .  and  the  priest  stands  between 
God  and  human  nature,  as  drawing  down  from  heaven 
graces  unto  us,  carrying  up  from  us  utterances  of  prayer 
to  heaven,  reconciling  Ilim,  when  He  is  angry,  to  our  com- 
mon nature,  and  delivering  us,  when  we  have  offended, 
out  of  His  hand.  For  these  causes  kings  themselves, 
also,  are  anointed  by  the  hands  of  the  priests,  but  not 
priests  by  the  hands  of  kings,  and  the  head  itself  of  the 
king  is  put  by  God  under  the  hands  of  His  priests,  show- 
ing us  that  the  priest  is  a  greater  authority  than  the 
king,  for  the  lesser  is  blessed  by  the  greater.  ...  Is  the 
tsar  the  head  of  the  Church?  No!  The  head  of  the 
Church  is  Christ.  .  .  .  The  tsar  neither  is,  nor  can  be,  the 
head  of  the  Church,  but  is  as  one  of  the  members,  and 
on  this  account  he  can  do  nothing  whatever  in  the 
Church.  .  .  .  Where  is  there  any  word  of  Christ  that  the 


lOG       THE  RUSSIAN  CllUnCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

tsar  is  to  have  power  over  the  Cliurch  ? .  .  .  The  tsar  has 
committed  to  him  the  things  of  this  earth,  but  I  have 
committed  to  me  the  things  of  lieaven.'"  He  vehe- 
mently assailed  the  Monastery  Court,  instituted  by  Alex- 
is, establishing  lay  jurisdiction  over  the  clergy  and  Church 
property,  as  illegal  by  the  ancient  ordinances  of  the 
empire,  and  xmrigliteous  by  the  canons  of  the  Church. 
Discussing  the  possible  conflict  of  authoiity,  he  declares : 
"  In  spiritual  things,  which  belong  to  the  glory  of  God, 
the  bishop  is  higher  than  the  tsar,  for  so  only  can  he 
maintain  the  spiritual  jurisdiction.  ■  But  in  those  things 
which  belong  to  the  province  of  this  world  the  tsar  is 
higher,  and  so  they  will  be  in  no  opposition,  the  one 
against  the  other." 

The  man  fell  a  victim  to  bigotry,  ignorance,  malevo- 
lence, and  jealousy,  but  of  his  work  much,  though  the 
least  valuable  portion,  remained.  The  council  Avhich 
sent  him  into  banishment  acknowledged,  by  its  acts,  the 
purity  and  orthodoxy  of  his  faith,  and,  after  electing 
Joasaph  II.  archimandrite  of  the  Trinity  Monastery,  to 
fill  the  vacant  patriarchate,  it  estabhshed  authoritatively 
the  changes  introduced  by  Nikon,  and  annulled  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Council  of  the  Hundred  Chapters,  which 
for  many  years  had  been  a  fruitful  source  and  support 
of  error.  A  few  years  later,  during  the  succeeding  reign, 
the  Monastery  Court  was  abolished,  and  the  patriarchal 
tribunal  re-established.  But  the  power  of  inveterate  hab- 
it and  the  force  of  prejudice  are  great,  and  the  attach- 
ment of  the  people  and  of  many  of  the  clergy  to  their 
ancient  forms  was  stronger  than  the  enactments  of  the 
assembly,  though  backed  by  all  the  authority  of  the  civil 
power.    Teachers  of  false  doctrine,  pretending  to  be  de- 


'  "The  Patriarch  and  the  Tsar,"  pp.  127,  251,  292, 


BEGINNING  OF  DISSENT. 


107 


fenders  of  the  old  national  religion,  disseminated  their 
heresies  throughout  the  empire,  at  first  in  secret,  then 
openly,  as  they  met  with  widespread  sympathy. 

Internal  disorders,  revolt  in  Little  Russia,  unsuccess- 
ful wars,  and  the  consequent  heavy  burdens  laid  upon 
the  people,  aggravated  the  ferment  of  religious  discon- 
tent. Numerous  sects,  asserting  a  purer  Orthodoxy,  ar- 
rayed themselves  in  opposition  to  the  national  Church ; 
the  most  dangerous  of  these  sectarian  movements  was 
that  among  the  population  about  the  AVhite  Sea ;  its  ad- 
herents, called  "  Pomorians,"  or  "  Dwellers  by  the  sea- 
shore," gathered  around  the  great  fortress  convent  of 
Solovetsk  as  their  stronghold.  This  brotherhood  of  ig- 
norant monks,  isolated  in  their  wintry  home,  had  ever 
been  noted  for  their  fanatical  devotion  to  ancient  forms ; 
they  had,  in  previous  reigns,  remonstrated  against,  and 
refused  to  accept,  changes  ordered  by  Church  authority, 
and  now,  with  overweening  confidence  in  the  strength 
of  their  walls  and  the  number  of  their  partisans,  they 
ventured  upon  open  rebellion,  and  for  ten  years  defied 
the  power  of  the  tsar ;  though  finally,  and  by  force,  re- 
duced to  submission,  their  heretical  doctrines  spread 
through  the  North  and  into  Siberia. 

Three  patriarchs — Joasaph  II.,  Pitirim,  and  Joachim — 
followed  in  rapid  succession  on  the  throne,  each  hostile 
to  Nikon ;  but  time  had  softened  the  resentment  of  the 
sovereign.  Rebellious  chieftains  had  falsely  claimed  the 
influence  of  Nikon's  name  under  Avhich  to  shelter  their 
pretensions,  but  Alexis  disbelieved  all  accusations  against 
his  loyalty,  and,  in  compassion,  greatly  mitigated  the  se- 
verity of  his  punishment.  "When  dying,  the  tsar  sent  to 
crave  his  full  forgiveness,  and,  at  Alexis's  death,  Nikon 
wept  bitterly,  and  mourned  the  loss  of  his  friend.  "  The 
will  of  God  be  done,"  he  exclaimed ;  "  what  though  he 


lOS      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


never  saw  me,  to  make  our  farewell  peace  here,  we  shall 
meet  and  be  judged  together  at  the  terrible  coming  of 
Christ." ' 

Under  Alexis's  son,  Feodor  III.,  the  malignity  of  Ni- 
kon's enemies  revived,  and  the  full  rigor  of  his  sentence 
was  enforced.  The  young  tsar  was  Nikon's  godson; 
but,  weak  and  sickly,  he  was  easily  swa3'ed  by  his  s])ir- 
itual  advisers,  and  left  the  unhappy  prelate,  broken  by 
suffering  and  disappointment,  to  languish  in  solitary  con- 
finement. A  revulsion  of  feeling  was,  however,  aroused 
in  the  prince's  breast  by  the  contemplation  of  the  great 
Church  establishments  projected  and  commenced  by 
Nikon,  but  now  abandoned  and  falling  to  decay.  A 
few  friends  Avho  still  remembered  him  ventured  to  raise 
their  voices  in  his  behalf.  Among  them  was  Simon  Po- 
lotsky,  in  Feodor's  youth  his  preceptor,  in  after-life  his 
friend  and  counsellor.  Polotsky  was  a  wise  and  erudite 
monk,  of  hberal  and  advanced  ideas,  without  sympathy 
with  the  harsh  and  bigoted  patriarch  Joachim.  lie  was 
fiUed  with  admiration  for  the  genius  of  the  great  re- 
former, and  shared  his  aspirations  for  tlie  glory  of  the 
Church.  He  appreciated  the  power  which  unity  and 
centralization  gave  the  Roman  Church,  and  conceived 
the  plan  of  a  similar  consolidation  in  the  Russian  estab- 
lishment by  raising  the  four  metropolitan  sees  to  patri- 
archates, and  placing  Nikon  over  all  as  supreme  pontiff. 

The  scheme  was  too  visionary,  and  too  much  at  vari- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  Church,  for  realization, 
but  Polotsky's  efforts  for  Nikon's  restoration  to  favor 
were  happily  timed,  and  found  quick  response  in  the 
tsar's  reawakened  affection  for  his  godfather. 

Nikon,  conscious  of  failing  strength,  had  long  and 


'  Mouravief,  p.  243. 


NIKON'S  DEATH, 


109 


earnestly  sought  permission  to  return  to  his  favorite 
monastery  of  Yoskresensk,  the  " Isew  Jerusalem,"  and 
there  end  his  days, 

Feodor  granted  this  request,  and  the  primate  Joachim 
yielded  a  reluctant  assent. 

The  dying  patriarch's  journey  was  a  triumphal  pro- 
cession. As  his  barge  dropped  slowly  down  the  Volga, 
the  people  pressed  into  the  stream  to  crave  his  blessing. 
From  the  monasteries,  which  crown  the  high  banks  of 
the  river,  the  brethren  came  forth  to  greet  him  with 
prayers  and  chants.  Sergius,  once  his  bitter  enemy,  and 
now,  in  disgrace,  sentenced  to  reclusion,  heard,  in  a  dream, 
Nikon's  voice  calling  him,  "  Brother  Sergius,  arise,  let  us 
forgive  and  take  leave  of  each  other ;"  and,  hastening  to 
the  water-side,  asked  forgiveness  on  his  knees.  "■  The 
citizens  of  Yai'oslav,  hearing  of  his  arrival,  crowded  to 
the  river,  and,  seeing  the  old  man  lying  on  his  couch  all 
but  dead,  threw  themselves  down  before  him  with  tears, 
kissing  his  hands  and  his  garments,  and  begging  his  bless- 
ing. Some  towed  the  barge  along  the  shore,  others  threw 
themselves  into  the  Avater  to  assist  them,  and  thus  they 
drew  it  in  and  moored  it  against  the  monastery  of  the 
'  All-merciful  Saviour.'  Just  then  the  bells  were  struck 
for  evening  prayer.  Xikon  was  at  the  point  of  death. 
Suddenly  he  turned  and  looked  about,  as  if  some  one 
had  come  to  call  him,  and  then  arranged  his  hair,  beard, 
and  dress  for  himself,  as  if  in  preparation  for  his  last  and 
longest  journey.  The  brethren,  standing  round,  recited 
the  prayers  for  the  d^'ing,  and  the  patriarch,  stretching 
himself  out  to  his  full  length  on  the  couch,  and  laying  his 
hands  crosswise  upon  his  breast,  gave  one  sigh,  and  de- 
parted from  this  world  in  peace." ' 


'  Mouravicf,  p.  246. 


110       THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AXD  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


Joachim's  enmity  did  not  cease  at  the  grave,  and,  un- 
der plea  of  Kikon's  degradation,  he  refused  to  render 
episcopal  honors  to  his  remains.  It  required  the  tsar's 
interference  to  check  these  manifestations  of  clerical  ma- 
lignity, and,  at  his  command,  Cornelius,  Metropolitan  of 
Novgorod,  officiated  at  the  burial.  The  monarch  him- 
self helped  bear  the  body  to  its  last  resting-])lace,  on  the 
spot  which  Nikon  had  chosen,  and,  subsequently,  he  ob- 
tained from  the  four  oecumenical  patriarchs  letters  of 
absolution  for  Nikon's  soul. 

Over  the  tomb  are  hanging  still  the  iron  cross  and 
heavy  chains  he  wore  upon  his  body,  and  Russian  pil- 
grims venerate  his  shrine  as  a  holy  place,  although  sol- 
emn condemnation  was  passed  upon  him  by  a  council  of 
almost  oecumenical  dignity. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Reunion  of  the  Polisli  to  the  Russian  Church. — Dissent. — Peter  the 
Great  and  his  Successors. — Substitution  of  the  Holy  Synod  for  the 
Patriarchate. — Absorption  of  the  Unia  by  the  Russian  Church. — Re- 
forms. 

During  Feodor's  short  reign  energetic  measures  were 
devised  to  arrest  the  progress  of  heretical  and  dissent- 
ing opinions,  which  had  taken  deep  root  among  the 
peasants  and  lower  classes.  Strong  efforts  were  made 
for  the  dissemination  of  education,  as  the  most  efficient 
mode  of  combating  false  doctrines,  but  they  ceased  at 
Feodor's  death,  when  the  country  was  again  plunged 
into  confusion  by  the  disputed  succession. 

The  patriarch  Joachim  favored  Peter,  to  the  exclusion 
of  his  imbecile  elder  brother  Ivan,  and  the  bloody  strug- 
gles of  rival  factions  resulted  in  the  joint  government  of 
the  two,  with  their  sister  Sophia  as  regent. 

The  period  of  Sophia's  regency  Avas  signalized  by  the 
reunion  of  the  Orthodox  Churches  of  Little  Russia  and 
Poland  to  that  of  the  empire. 

When  Little  Russia  was  brought  under  the  sway  of 
Alexis,  its  Orthodox  clergy,  and  that  of  Poland,  assert- 
ed their  alliliation  Avith  Constantinople,  preferring  a 
nominal  dependency  upon  a  distant  see  to  real  subjec- 
tion under  a  powerful  neighbor.  Anarchy  and  intes- 
tine strife  in  succeeding  years,  aggravated  in  Little 
Russia  by  Polish  invasion,  were  accompanied  by  dis- 
sensions in  the  Church.    Rival  prelates,  supported  by 


112       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

different  factions,  and  each  claiming  ecclesiastical  sov- 
ereignty, maintained  their  independence  of  Moscow. 

The  Russian  patriarchs  appointed  guardians  of  the  see 
of  Kiev,  but  their  authority  was  ignored. 

To  heal  these  divisions,  and  to  settle  the  question  of 
supremacy  by  an  authoritative  decision,  reference  was 
made  to  the  Byzantine  patriarch.  The  ecclesiastical 
dispute  was  decided  simultaneously  with  the  pacifica- 
tion of  the  Ukraine  under  the  Iletman  Samuelovitch, 
and  its  cession,  witli  Kiev,  to  Russia  by  John  Sobiesky, 
in  1GS5,  as  the  price  of  her  neutrality  in  his  wars  with 
the  Tui'ks.  A  formal  decree  from  Constantinople  united 
the  Orthodox  Churches  of  Russia  and  Poland  under  the 
see  of  Moscow,  and  terminated  their  separation  of  two 
centuries  and  a  half. 

This  auspicious  event  was,  however,  followed  by  un- 
fortunate and  unforeseen  consequences  to  the  Polish 
establishment.  Shorn  of  the  comparative  independence 
it  had  so  long  enjoyed,  and  insufficiently  protected  by 
Russia,  it  gradually  lost  energy  and  vitality,  and  yielded 
to  the  surrounding  pressure.  The  government,  jealous 
of  any  control  by  a  foreign  pontiff  over  its  dioceses,  en- 
deavored to  sup])lant  Orthodox  prelates  by  others  of  the 
Catholic  or  Uniate  creeds.  Its  efforts  were  crowned 
with  success,  and  eventually  but  a  single  Orthodox  bish- 
op remained  in  the  realm.  From  the  people,  deprived 
of  their  spiritual  advisers  and  exposed  to  unremitting 
and  persistent  persecution,  nearly  every  trace  of  Ortho- 
doxy disappeared,  save  among  the  peasantry  of  the  more 
remote  districts. 

In  Russia,  meanwhile,  the  absence  of  a  firm  and  set- 
tled government,  and  the  disorder  consequent  upon  the 
strife  of  rival  factions  greatly  facilitated  the  growth  and 
development  of  religious  dissensions  among  the  people. 


GROWTH  OF  DISSENT.— ITS  POLITICAL  ASPECT.  II3 

Althoiigli  they  were  subjected  to  strict  supervision,  and 
all  overt  manifestations  were  suppressed  by  force,  the 
feeling,  among  them,  of  hostihty  to  the  innovations  inau- 
gurated by  ]^ikon  had  spread  throughout  the  empire. 
The  superior  clergy,  Avho  generally  accepted  the  reforms 
and  were  in  sympathy  with  the  nobles,  treated  the  vil- 
lage priests,  who  Avere  recruited  chiefly  among  the  peo- 
ple and  shared  their  feelings,  with  arrogance  and  con- 
tempt. This  aggravated  the  popular  discontent,  which, 
in  turn,  reacted  upon  the  minor  clergy.  The  prevalent 
and  increasing  dissatisfaction  of  the  lower  classes  was 
fostered  by  unscru])ulous  and  designing  men  in  further- 
ance of  their  ambitious  ends.  The  inveterate  hatred  of 
Russians  for  everything  foreign  was,  notwithstanding 
the  Greek  origin  of  their  Church,  artfully  fomented 
against  innovations  brought  from  Constantinople  and 
against  their  advocates.  In  all  the  schemes  and  in- 
trigues, in  all  the  insurrectionary  and  political  move- 
ments of  those  troublous  times,  the  element  of  relig- 
ious discord  played  an  important  part.  Discontent  and 
Dissent,  acting  and  reacting,  grew  into  a  formidable  po- 
litical power,  dangerous  and  threatening,  even  to  the 
stabiUty  of  the  government. 

The  only  military  organization  existing  in  Russia  was 
that  of  the  "  Streltsi," '  an  irregular  kind  of  national 
guard,  first  created  under  Ivan  IV.  It  was  officered 
exclusively  by  Russians,  and  was  largely  recruited  from 
among  the  people,  with  whom,  as  a  bod}',  it  was  in  gen- 
eral accord,  especially  in  dislike  for  everything  of  a 
foreign  origin  or  nature.  This  turbulent  militia,  ever 
clamoring  for  whatever  they  deemed  national  or  Rus- 
sian, sympatliized  with  the  popular  attachment  to  the 


'  From  Strelets,  meaning  archer  or  bowman. 

8 


114       THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUUCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


old  forms  and  ceremonies  of  religious  AA'orsliip;  they 
joined  tlie  outcry  raised  against  the  changes  introduced 
into  the  Chui'ch  service  as  being  heresies,  subversive  of 
the  true  faith,  and  demanded  a  return  to  ancient  custom. 

In  order  to  check  the  prevalent  dissatisfaction,  which 
ever  and  anon  found  seditious  expression,  the  authorities 
consented  to  a  public  disputation  upon  the  points  in  con- 
troversy. Nikita,  formerly  a  priest,  then  a  dissenter,  and 
who,  under  threat  of  punishment,  had  recanted  and  again 
relapsed,  led  the  popular  side ;  but  tlie  meeting,  convened 
with  due  solemnity  in  presence  of  the  tsars  and  the  re- 
gent, with  the  patriarch  and  clerg}',  ended  in  a  noisy 
riot,  put  down  Avith  a  strong  hand.  The  Streltsi,  over- 
awed by  display  of  force,  and  cajoled  by  promises,  aban- 
doned Nikita,  Avith  his  adherents,  to  their  fate.  lie,  and 
many  of  his  disciples,  were  executed  and  order  restored. 
Notwithstanding  vigorous  measures  of  repression,  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  were  infested  Avith  the  poison  of 
Dissent ;  sect  after  sect  arose,  each  with  its  local  follow- 
ing and  peculiarities,  but  all  professing,  as  their  single 
common  bond  of  union,  opposition  to  reform  and  to  tlie 
established  Church,  as  having  fallen  aAvay  from  the  an- 
cient and  true  faith. 

As  Peter  grew  to  man's  estate,  a  giant  in  mind  and 
body,  his  haughty,  imperious  nature  could  ill  brook  a 
divided  authority.  Sophia  was  equally  ambitious,  and 
incited  the  Streltsi  to  rise  in  her  behalf.  Peter,  warned 
in  season,  fled  to  the  Troitsa  monastery,  where  already, 
Avhen  a  boy  of  ten  years  of  age,  he  had,  with  his  mother 
IS'atalia,  found  protection  against  rebellious  subjects. 
There  the  patriarch  and  his  clergy,  together  with  the 
lo3^al  nobles,  rallied  to  his  support.  The  insurrectionary 
movement  Avas  checked  and  Sophia  Avas  de])osed. 

Ten  years  after,  in  1G9S,  this  AA'ild  and  undisciplined 


KEIGN  OF  PETER  THE  GREAT. 


115 


soldiery  again  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Peter  was 
absent  from  Russia,  but,  hurrying  back,  he  abolished  the 
institution,  and  wreaked  such  fearful  and  bloody  ven- 
geance upon  the  rebels  as  to  call  forth  remonstrance,  "  in 
the  name  of  the  Mother  of  God,"  from  Adrian,  who  was 
then  patriarch.  "  Get  thee  home,"  was  the  fierce  reply ; 
"  know  that  I  reverence  God  and  his  most  Holy  Mother 
more  earnestly  perhaps  than  thou  dost.  It  is  the  duty 
of  my  sovereign  office,  and  a  duty  that  I  owe  to  God,  to 
save  ray  people  from  harm,  and  to  prosecute,  with  direst 
severity,  crimes  that  tend  to  the  common  ruin."  His  im- 
patience of  control  and  his  growing  determination  to 
break  down  all  opposition,  even  that  of  the  Church,  to 
his  will,  were  thus  early  made  manifest. 

The  patriarch  Joachim  died  in  1G90 ;  although  a  life- 
long enemy  of  Nikon,  he,  with  the  higher  clergy,  had 
accepted  the  changes  in  the  Church  service  Avhich  Xikon 
introduced,  but  he  shared  the  general  dislike  felt  by 
all  Russians  of  high  and  low  degree  for  foreigners,  and 
mourned  the  tsar's  deplorable  predilection  for  their  soci- 
ety. His  opposition  to  them,  otherwise  unavailing,  was 
successfully  exercised  against  teachers  of  foreign  relig- 
ions ;  the  toleration  hitherto  extended  to  Calvinists  and 
Lutherans  was  greatly  restricted;  Catholics  were  pro- 
hibited from  celebrating  mass  in  pubhc ;  the  Jesuits  were 
banished ;  and  Germans,  accused  of  disseminating  false 
and  blasphemous  doctrines,  were  burned  at  the  stake. 
He  left  testamentarv  admonitions  to  the  tsar,  urffiner 
him  to  drive  from  Russia  all  heretics  and  unbelievers, 
enemies  of  the  Orthodox  faith,  and  to  destroy  their 
places  of  M-orship.  His  administration  of  the  Clnirch 
was  characterized  by  decision  and  energy,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  growth  of  Dissent  and  the  influx  of  foreign 
ideas,  its  power  and  the  extent  of  its  sway  was  largely 


116       TlIK  RUSSIAN  CllUnClI  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

increased.  Its  conquests  followed  those  of  the  State, 
and  spread  Christianity  to  the  farthest  regions  of  East- 
ern Siberia ;  a  bishopric  was  established  at  Irkutsk,  and 
the  incumbent,  Innocentius  Koulcliinsky,  was  head  of  a 
church  mission  to  Fekin.  In  lG8i  a  garrison  of  four  hun- 
dred Cossacks  defended  a  frontier  fortress  at  Albasin,  on 
the  river  Amoor,  with  such  distinguished  bravery  that 
their  survivors,  Avhen  compelled  by  starvation  to  capitu- 
late, were  granted  their  lives  and  were  settled  in  Pekin, 
with  permission  from  the  Emperor  of  China  to  retain 
their  religion  and  to  receive  priests  of  their  Church  from 
Russia.  Descendants  of  this  captive  colony  of  Christians 
exist  in  Pekin  at  the  present  day. 

Peter  was  but  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  the  gigantic 
schemes  which  were  to  immortalize  his  name,  and  trans- 
form the  empire,  were  still  ideas  or  aspirations  vaguely 
conceived,  without  having  as  yet  assumed  in  his  mind 
definite  shape  and  proportion.  He  did  not  then  proba- 
bly realize  the  importance  for  his  plans  Avhich  attached 
to  the  choice  of  a  head  for  the  Church,  and  while  prefer- 
ring IVfarcellus,  Metropolitan  of  Pskov,  a  "  learned  and  civ- 
ihzed  "  person,  he  acquiesced  in  the  selection  of  Adrian, 
Metropolitan  of  Kasan,  an  aged  prelate,  narrow-minded, 
strongly  imbued  with  antiquated  and  national  prejudices, 
the  favorite  of  the  lower  clergy,  and  of  what  may  even  then 
be  considered  as  the  old  Russian  party.  He  was  a  rigid 
Churchman,  and  during  his  pontificate  the  confession  of 
Peter  Mogila,  which  had  been  generally  received  in  Rus- 
sia, was  formally  adopted  as  embodying  the  doctrines 
and  belief  of  the  Church.  His  influence  was  in  constant 
op])osition  to  the  wishes  of  the  tsar;  AVestern  habits, 
which  Peter  was  eager  to  follow,  were  an  abomination 
in  his  sight ;  the  use  of  tobacco,  the  Avearing  of  foreign 
apparel,  he  condemned  as  sinful ;  by  a  decree  in  due  form 


PETER  THE  GREAT.— HIS  TRAVELS.-REFORMS.  117 

he  anathematized  all  who  shaved  their  beards,  an  "  orna- 
ment given  by  God  to  man,  whom  He  created  in  His  ovm 
image,  which  had  been  worn  by  all  the  holy  prophets 
and  apostles,  by  the  saints  of  the  Church,  and  by  our 
Saviour  Himself." 

Peter's  growing  determination  to  bring  his  people 
within  the  pale  of  "Western  civihzation  Avas  strengthened 
by  his  travels.  He  was  the  first  tsar  who  had  left  Eus- 
sia  since  Isiaslav  took  refuge  in  Germany  with  the  em- 
peror Henry,  in  1073.  On  his  return  from  foreign  coun- 
tries Peter  applied  himself  vigorously  to  his  task,  with 
haughty  disregard  of  edicts  of  his  predecessors,  of  de- 
crees of  patriarchs,  and  of  ancient  customs. 

The  social  and  civil  changes  he  first  introduced  struck 
a  fatal  blow  at  the  most  cherished  prejudices,  and  at  the 
rehgious  beUef  of  his  people.  They  were  followed  by 
others  more  radical  and  fundamental,  as  well  in  the 
Church  as  in  the  body  politic. 

During  his  travels  he  had  examined  for  himself  the 
different  religious  systems  of  Western  Europe.  He  had 
listened  to  Protestant  preaching  in  Holland,  to  exhorta- 
tions of  Quakers  and  of  Anglican  divines  in  England, 
and,  in  Austria  and  Poland,  had  lent  an  apparently  will- 
ing ear  to  arguments  of  Catholic  priests  in  favor  of  a 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  but  always  with- 
out conviction  as  to  his  religious  belief.  Gilbert  Burnet, 
Bishop  of  Salisbury,  judged  him  accurately  in  his  shrewd 
remark,  "that  he  Avas  anxious  to  understand  our  doc- 
trines, but  he  did  not  seem  disposed  to  mend  matters  in 
Muscovy." 

The  Catholic  prelates  felt  more  encouragement,  and 
the  papal  nuncio  at  Vienna  reported  to  Borne  that  Peter 
had  evinced  a  desire  to  be  received  into  the  bosom  of  the 
true  Church.  With  them,  however,  the  wish  was  father 


118       THE  RUSSIAN  CHUECII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

to  the  thought.  "While  he  evidently  inclined  to  tolera- 
tion, he  violently  resented  any  reflection,  in  his  hearing, 
upon  the  Orthodox  Church.  At  Mitau  he  attended  mass, 
and  a  Polish  senator  ventured  to  urge  upon  him  the 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Ivoman  Churches,  but  Peter  re- 
plied :  "  Sovereigns  have  rights  only  over  the  bodies  of 
their  people ;  Christ  is  the  sovereign  of  their  souls.  For 
such  a  thing  a  general  consent  is  necessary,  and  that  is 
in  the  power  of  God  alone."  Whatever  may  have  been 
Peter's  intentions  towards  the  Church,  in  its  relations  to 
the  State,  he  had  no  Avish  to  disturb  the  religious  belief 
of  the  people. 

The  patriarch,  Adrian,  died  in  1700,  at  the  moment 
when  Peter  was  engaged  in  remodelling  the  national 
code,  and  in  establishing  clear  distinctions  between  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  election  of  a  suc- 
cessor was  postponed  by  the  tsar's  orders,  upon  pretext 
of  his  absence  with  the  army,  and  probably  also  on  ac- 
count of  his  solicitude  that  the  choice  should  not,  while 
he  was  away,  fall  upon  a  prelate  hostile  to  his  views.  As 
a  temporary  measure,  Stephen  Yavorsky,  Metropolitan  of 
Eiazan,  a  man  of  great  learning,  ability,  and  prudence, 
was  named  guardian  of  the  see,  with  the  title  of  Exarch. 

The  reorganization  of  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
was  speedily  commenced.  Questions  of  theology,  and  of 
Church  discijDline,  Avere  reserved  to  the  patriarchal  tribu- 
nal, but  the  charge  of  the  property  and  of  the  material 
interests  of  the  Church,  together  Avith  general  supervis- 
ion over  clerical  affairs,  Avas  confided  to  the  "  De])art- 
ment  of  the  Monasteries,"  created  for  the  purpose. 

The  religious  establishments  in  Pussia  Avere  very  nu- 
merous and  very  Avealthy  ;  many  Avere  very  ancient,  Avith 
exclusive  and  peculiar  privileges,  dating  back  anterior  to 
any  codified  laAvs.    There  Avere  in  all  557  monasteries 


CHURCH  ESTABLISHMENTS.— CLERGY.— REFORMS.  HQ 

and  convents,  whose  vast  possessions  comprised  130,000 
peasant  houses  and  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  serfs ; 
the  richest  was  the  great  Troitsa  monastery,  near  Mos- 
cow, which  owned  20,400  houses  and  upwards  of  100,000 
serfs,  representing,  at  the  present  time,  a  value  of  nearly 
four  miUions  sterhng ; '  then  came  the  official  property 
of  the  patriarchate,  which  was  reckoned  at  S900  houses, 
and  that  of  the  see  of  Rostov,  comprising  4400  houses, 
with  proportionate  numbers  of  serfs. 

The  Department  of  the  Monasteries  was  empowered 
to  take  charge  of,  and  manage,  this  enormous  property 
for  the  general  good  of  the  Church,  pa3ing  an  annual 
sum  to  each  establishment  for  the  support  of  its  inmates. 

The  thriftless  and  lazy  thronged  in  and  about  religious 
communities  in  order  to  enjoy  an  easy  and  comfortable 
existence,  and  to  secure  exemption  from  militar}^  service. 
To  remedy  this  evil,  really  serious  from  the  sparseness 
of  the  population,  the  number  of  residents  in  each  insti- 
tution was  prescribed  by  law,  and  stringent  regulations 
were  enacted  for  entrance  to  religious  life.  It  was  pro- 
hibited to  minors — to  such  as  could  not  read  nor  write — 
to  those  of  noble  birth,  and  to  all  in  the  employment  of 
the  State.  The  limit  of  age  for  admission  was  fixed  at 
thirty  j'ears  for  monks  and  at  forty  for  nuns,  and  the 
previous  consent  of  the  tsar  was  necessary.  The  in- 
mates of  each  establishment  were  compelled  to  remain 
within  its  walls,  and  were  subjected  to  rigid  observance 
of  strict  monastic  discipline.  Allowances  and  salaries 
were  assigned  to  the  higher  spiritual  authorities  in  lieu 
of  their  estates,  and  of  the  dues  hitherto  exacted  from 
the  parishes.  Tlie  surplus  income  of  the  fund  was  to  be 
devoted  to  charitable  objects  and  mihtary  hospitals,  and 
finaUy  to  the  current  necessities  of  the  State. 


'  Ilaxtbausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  72. 


120       THE  KUSSIAN  CHURCH  AN'D  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


The  measure  was  calculated  to  elevate  the  character 
of  the  Avhole  religious  body,  and,  by  depriving  it  of  its 
worldly  superfluity,  to  purify  its  ranks  of  the  army  of 
parasites  and  mendicants  fattening  upon  it  in  sloth  and 
ignorance.  It  was,  liowevei',  practically,  one  of  confisca- 
tion, and,  together  with  strict  enforcement  of  discipline, 
it  caused  very  great  discontent  among  the  clergy,  whose 
persistent  and  bitter  opposition  delayed  its  thorough  ex- 
ecution until  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  Clerical  jeal- 
ousy was  also  aroused  by  the  reorganization  of  the 
Academy  of  Moscow,  where  the  introduction  of  foreign 
teachers,  and  of  professors  from  Kiev,  was  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  incapacity  and  ignorance  of  the  native  clergy. 

Yavorsky  was  indefatigable  in  his  efforts  to  regenerate 
and  reform  the  Church,  and  was  at  first  assured  of  the 
friendship  and  support  of  the  tsar,  but  he  was  dismayed 
at  the  storm  of  opposition  he  encountered,  by  the  clash- 
ing of  conflicting  authorities,  by  quarrelling  between  the 
monastic  de]iartment  and  the  patriarchal  court ;  he  was, 
moreover,  subsequently  discouraged  by  frequent  differ- 
ences with  the  sovereign,  for  Avhom  the  Church  Avas 
rather  a  powerful  political  lever  than  an  institution  of 
peculiar  sanctity.  To  share  and  lighten  his  labors  there 
were,  fortunately  for  Peter's  plans,  a  few  noble  and  dis- 
interested men  who  could  appreciate  the  wisdom  of  the 
changes  inaugurated :  who  could  rise  above  the  narrow- 
minded  bigotry  of  their  clerical  brethren  and  the  preju- 
dices of  the  day,  to  become  able  and  zealous  coadjutors 
in  the  great  reformatory  work.  The  archimandrite 
Dimitri  brought  to  its  support  his  earnest  piety,  pro- 
found learning,  and  historical  research ;  he  is  famous  in 
the  annals  of  the  Church  for  his  "  Lives  of  the  Saints," 
which  is  still  a  religious  classic,  and  has  himself  been 
canonized ;  his  writings,  aimed  especially  against  the 


TOLERATION  OF  FOREIGN  RELIGIONS. 


121 


fallacies  of  Dissent,  and  intended  to  expose  and  dispel  its 
errors,  were  widely  disseminated.  Job,  Metropolitan  of 
Novgorod,  lavished  the  revenues  of  his  see  on  establish- 
ments of  benevolence  and  charity,  and  on  institutions  of 
learning ;  he  created  a  school  for  the  higher  education 
of  the  clergy,  and  by  his  influence  obtained  the  release 
from  confinement  of  many  victims  of  clerical  intolerance 
and  jealousy.  Metrophanes,  Bishop  of  Yoronege,  the  last 
saint  added  to  the  Eussian  calendar,  was  animated  by  a 
spirit  of  unselfish  patriotism.  By  exhortation  and  ex- 
ample he  allayed  the  discontent  of  the  peasantry  of  his 
diocese,  who  were  impatient  of  the  burdens  imposed 
upon  them,  and  induced  them  to  labor  Avillingly  on  the 
construction  of  the  fleet  which  Peter  destined  for  an  at- 
tack upon  Azov.  His  bold  and  fearless  chai^acter  was 
singularly  attractive  to  the  rough-and-ready  tsar,  whose 
irregularities  and  extravagances  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
chide,  Avhile  he  proved  his  loyalty  and  devotion  by  the 
sacrifice  of  his  ])rivate  fortune  to  help  relieve  the  press- 
ing necessities  of  the  government. 

In  1702  Peter  issued  his  famous  manifesto  inviting 
foreigners  to  liussia,  and  estabhshing  the  principle  of 
religious  toleration.  He  declared  therein  that,  "  as  in 
our  residence  of  Moscow  the  free  exercise  of  religion  of 
all  other  sects,  although  not  agreeing  with  our  Church, 
is  already  allowed,  so  shall  this  be  hereby  confirmed 
aneAV  in  such  Avise  that  we,  by  the  power  granted  to  us 
by  the  Almighty,  shall  exercise  no  compulsion  over  the 
consciences  of  men,  and  shall  gladly  allow  every  Chris- 
tian to  care  for  his  own  salvation  at  his  own  risk."  ' 

The  toleration  shown  by  the  tsar  to  foreign  I'cligions 
was  not  extended  to  Jews  or  to  native  Dissenters. 


'  Schuyler,  vol.  ii.,  p.  141, 


122       '^"I'^  KUSSIAN  CIIUUCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

The  hitter  had  increased  in  numbers  as  a  result  of  the 
changes  and  innovations  introduced  in  the  State  and 
Church ;  thc}^  enjoyed,  at  times,  a  precarious  immunity 
as  a  consequence  of  the  constant  wars  in  which  Peter 
was  involved.  When  not  engaged  in  weightier  matters, 
he  pursued  them  Avith  relentless  severity ;  less,  however, 
from  any  religious  motive,  than  from  a  stern  determina- 
tion to  crush  all  opposition  to  his  reforms. 

Fanaticism  grew  with  persecution ;  discontent  among 
the  people  became  hatred  of  the  oppressor,  and  the  tra- 
ditional veneration  for  the  tsar  turned  to  pious  horror. 
Serious  outbreaks,  which  required  a  strong  force  for 
their  repression,  occurred  in  different  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  even  in  Moscow.  The  frontiers  of  Poland  and  Li- 
vonia, the  neighborhood  of  the  great  lakes,  tlie  marshes 
of  Olonetz,  the  wilds  of  Perm  and  Siberia,  the  shores  of 
the  White  Sea,  the  forests  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  the  banks 
of  the  Volga  and  of  the  Don,  were  thronged  with  colo- 
nies of  schismatics,  all  at  variance  one  Avith  another,  and 
proclaiming  doctrines  as  extravagant  as  their  enthusiasm 
Avas  fervid,  but  all  animated  by  a  fanaticism  stronger 
than  death.  Thousands  left  their  homes  to  perish  in 
the  Avilderness ;  Avhole  families  deliberately  sought  vol- 
untary martyrdom  in  the  flames  of  their  burning  houses, 
kindled  by  their  own  hands. 

Against  the  fervor  of  this  popular  spiritual  uprising 
the  efforts  of  the  Church  and  the  poAvcr  of  the  State 
Avere  exerted  in  vain.  Dissent  Avas  rooted  in  the  hearts 
of  the  people,  never  again  to  be  extirpated. 

The  relations  between  the  tsar  and  the  exarch  Avere 
no  longer  harmonious.  Peter  Avas  exacting  and  arbi- 
trary, impatient  of  clerical  control,  and  inclined  to  use 
ecclesiastical  patronage  in  furtherance  of  his  political 
plans.    Yavorsky,  Avhile  faithful  and  loyal,  Avas  indepen- 


INCREASE  OF  DISSENT.— THE  SORDONNE.  123 

dent,  and  rigid  in  his  devotion  to  the  Church.  A  new 
favorite  supplanted  him  at  court.  Feofan  Procopo- 
vitch  attracted  Peter's  attention  by  his  eloquence,  and 
ingratiated  himself  by  his  Avily  and  insinuating  address. 
He  })reached  absolute  submission  to  the  monarch's  will, 
advocated  his  reformatory  measures,  and  defended  his 
private  character.  In  the  grievous  dissensions  between 
Peter  and  the  tsarevitch  Alexis,  he  energetically  sup- 
ported the  father,  while  Yavorsky  sympathized  with  the 
son.  Procopovitch  had  studied  under  the  Jesuits  at 
Rome,  and  his  religious  convictions  had  varied  wii;h  his 
prospects  of  advancement ;  alternately  Orthodox,  Uniate, 
and  again  Orthodox,  his  latitudinarian  opinions  were 
suspicious  to  Yavorsky,  who  accused  him  of  heresy,  and 
arraigned  him  before  a  council  of  the  Church.  By  the 
tsar's  favor  he  issued  triumphantly  from  this  trial,  and 
Yavorsky,  in  comparative  disgrace,  was  ordered  to  re- 
move to  the  new  capital,  St.  Petersburg. 

When  Peter  was  at  Paris,  in  1717,  the  theologians  of 
the  Sorbonne  made  him  proposals  for  a  union  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  They  dwelt  at  Icngtii  upon 
the  general  accord  of  their  doctrines  and  sacraments, 
and  on  the  similarity  of  their  ecclesiastical  discipline; 
they  made  light  of  the  dog-ma  of  the  Double  Proces- 
sion, instancing  the  creed  of  the  Uniates,  Avhich,  with 
the  pope's  assent,  ignored  it ;  and  they  laid  still  less 
stress  upon  recognition  of  the  pope's  supremacy,  ad- 
ducing the  independence  and  liberties  of  the  Gallican 
Church. 

Procopovitch  prepared  the  reply  to  these  proposals. 
It  declared  that  the  Ivussian  bishops  could  not  venture 
to  decide  alone  so  momentous  a  question,  which  con- 
cerned the  whole  Church  universal ;  it  should  be  submit- 
ted to  a  general  conclave,  in  which  the  Eastern  pati^- 


12i       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

archs  should  take  part,  and,  meanwhile,  any  close  connec- 
tion of  their  own  with  a  foreign  Church  might  seriously 
endanger  the  ancient  unity  of  the  Orthodox  communion. 

A  similar  movement  towards  union  Avith  the  Rus- 
sian Church  was  made  by  the  Enghsh  clergy,  but  it 
also  proved  abortive,  and  was  again  revived  some  years 
later. 

In  spite  of  all  opposition,  Peter  had  accomjilished  the 
cherished  aim  of  his  ambition,  and  given  Russia  her  fit- 
ting place  among  the  powers  of  the  civihzed  world. 
Satisfied  with  the  result  of  his  changes  in  the  constitu- 
tion and  government  of  the  State,  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  Church.  For  many  years  it  had  been  de- 
prived of  its  official  head,  and  was  administered  by  an 
authority,  originally  instituted  as  a  temporary  expedi- 
ent, but  which  was  no  longer  equal  to  the  emergency. 
He  was  also  pressed  to  a  definite  settlement  of  the  eccle- 
siastical question  by  tlie  urgent  sohcitations  of  the  met- 
ropolitan Yavorsky,  still  guardian  of  the  patriarchate, 
who,  waxing  old  and  no  longer  possessing  the  full  confi- 
dence of  the  emperor,  was  anxious  to  be  relieved  from 
the  increasing  cares  and  responsibilities  of  the  office. 

To  intrust  the  full  power  and  influence  of  the  Church 
to  a  single  individual  seemed  a  measure  fraught  with 
danger,  and  Peter  was  reluctant  to  feel  again,  by  the 
side  of  the  throne,  a  personal  authoi'ity  almost  equal  to 
his  own,  in  a  degree  beyond  control,  and  possibly  antag- 
onistic. The  creation  of  a  senate,  the  establishment  of 
colleges,  or  boards  of  commissioners,  for  the  administra- 
tion of  civil  affairs,  had  proved  successful ;  he  had  seen, 
in  Protestant  countries,  the  possibility  of  ap])lying  a  sim- 
ilar form  of  government  to  the  Church,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  adopt  it  in  Russia. 

To  Feofan  Procopovitch,  under  his  personal  super- 


CHANGES  IN  CHURCH  GOVERNMENT. 


125 


vision,  Avas  confided  the  preparation  of  "  Tlie  Spiritual 
Eegulation,"  as  the  basis  of  the  new  reform. 

It  was  put  in  force  in  1721,  and  the  motives  which  guided 
the  emperor  in  his  decision  are  thus  plainly  expressed  in 
the  document  itself :  "  From  the  collegiate  government 
in  the  Church  there  is  not  so  much  danger  to  the  country 
of  disturbances  and  troubles  as  may  be  produced  by  one 
spiritual  ruler,  for  the  common  people  do  not  understand 
the  difference  between  the  spiritual  jDower  and  that  of 
the  autocrat ;  but,  dazzled  by  the  splendor  and  glory  of 
the  highest  pastor,  they  think  that  he  is  a  second  sover- 
eign of  like  poAvers  Avith  the  autocrat,  or  CA'en  Avith  more, 
and  that  the  spiritual  poAver  is  that  of  another  and  a 
better  realm.  If,  then,  there  should  be  any  difference  of 
opinion  between  the  patriarch  and  the  tsar,  it  might  easi- 
ly happen  that  the  people,  perhaps  led  by  designing  jiei-- 
sons,  should  take  the  part  of  the  patriarch,  in  the  belief 
that  they  Avere  fighting  for  God's  cause,  and  that  it  AA'as 
necessary  to  stand  by  Ilim." 

The  supreme  power  of  the  Church  was  vested  in  a 
body,  at  first  termed  "  the  Spiritual  College,"  and  Avhich 
Avas  afterAvards,  and  still  is,  designated  as  "The  Most 
Holy  Governing  Synod."  It  AA'as  originally  composed 
of  ten  members  chosen  from  the  different  ranks  of  the 
clerical  hierarchy,  and,  subsequently,  the  number  Avas  re- 
duced to  eight.  To  its  charge  Avere  committed  the  ad- 
ministration of  all  the  estates  of  the  Church ;  the  elec- 
tion of  bishops  ;  supreme  jurisdiction  o\-er  all  the  clergy, 
save  in  capital  cases,  and  over  all  matters  of  heresy, 
schism,  marriage,  divorce,  and  Church  discipline. 

The  "  Sjnritual  Regulation"  Avas  submitted  to  a  council 
convened  at  Moscow,  comprising  the  highest  dignitaries 
of  the  Church  and  the  State.  Notwithstanding  the  hos- 
tility of  the  old  Eussian  party,  and  the  objections  urged 


120       THE  KUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  KUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

by  many  ])relates,  who  preferred  tlie  maintenance  of  the 
patriarchate,  the  authority  of  the  tsar  bore  down  all  op- 
position, and  the  measure  ^vas  approved.  Yavorsky  was 
made  president  of  the  Synod,  with  Fcodocei  Yanovsky 
and  Feofan  Procopovitch  as  vice-presidents. 

The  new  institution  was  announced  to  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  in  an  autograph  letter  from  the  tsar, 
setting  forth  the  necessities  of  the  Eussian  Church  and 
the  reasons  which  had  dictated  a  change  in  its  form  of 
government.  lie  expressed  the  hope  that  the  Synod 
might  receive  the  recognition  of  the  Eastern  patriarchs, 
and  ever  maintain,  in  close  communion  with  them,  the 
ancient  unity  of  the  Orthodox  faith. 

Favorable  replies  were  returned  by  them  all,  and  the 
constitution  of  the  Russian  Church,  thus  confirmed  and 
sanctioned  by  the  oecumenical  fathers,  still  continues  in 
full  force,  as  established  by  Peter. 

A  union  between  the  Anglican  and  Oriental  Churches, 
which  had  been  already  suggested  to  Peter,  had  mean- 
while been  pressed  in  the  East  by  certain  members  of 
the  English  clergy,  but  Avithout  any  prospect  of  success. 
This  visionary  scheme  received  at  the  same  time  a  delin- 
itive  settlement.  The  Eastern  fathers  and  the  Eussian 
divines  joined  in  emphatically  repudiating  the  heretical 
and  Calvinistic  doctrines  with  which  they  declared  the 
English  Church  to  be  tainted,  and,  mutually  exhorting 
each  other  to  be  steadfast  in  the  faith,  the}'^  reasserted 
the  truth  of  the  Orthodox  confession,  as  set  forth  by 
Peter  Mogila  and  proclaimed  by  Dositheus,  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  at  the  Council  of  Bethlehem,  in  1G72. 

Other  questions,  which  at  diflPerent  periods  of  the 
Church's  history  had  been  decided  and  redecided,  now, 
in  one  way  and  again  in  another,  were  discussed,  and  to 
Peter's  influence  Avas  due  the  more  Catholic  and  Chris- 
tian spirit  in  which  they  were  finally  settled. 


FINAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  CHURCH.— TOLERATION.  127 

The  rebaptism  of  converts  from  Romanism  had  been 
already  abolished  in  Russia,  and  it  was  now  declared  to 
be  equally  unnecessary  in  the  case  of  Protestant  Chris- 
tian sects.  Marriage  between  members  of  the  Orthodox 
Church  and  those  of  a  foreign  creed  Avere  permitted, 
upon  condition  that  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  sub- 
vert the  belief  of  the  Orthodox  husband  or  wife,  and  that 
the  children  should  be  educated  in  the  Orthodox  faith. 

The  changes  and  reforms  which  Peter  imposed  upon 
the  nation,  once  definitively  settled  and  accepted,  his 
treatment  of  dissenting  sects,  whose  hostility  was  no 
longer  dangerous  to  his  institutions,  became  milder. 
Peaceful  subjects,  who  held  aloof  from  political  affairs, 
Avere  assured  of  protection.  In  passing  through  the 
deserts  along  the  river  Yyg,  he  visited  a  flourishing  col- 
ony of  these  schismatics,  and  encouraged  them  in  their 
efforts  to  reclaim  the  wilderness.  He  bade  them  pray 
for  him.  "  God,"  said  he,  "  has  given  power  over  the 
nation  to  the  tsar,  but  Christ  alone  has  power  over  the 
consciences  of  men."  Yet,  as  a  true  believer,  he  consid- 
ered Dissent  an  error,  the  propagation  of  whicli  he  wished 
to  prevent ;  hence  its  adherents  Avere  doubly  taxed,  and 
compelled  to  adopt  a  peculiar  dress  ;  attendance  upon  the 
churcli  service  on  Sundays,  and  communion  at  Easter, 
were  made  obligatory  upon  all,  and  any  attack  upon  the 
Orthodox  faith  met  with  severe  punishment.  He  pursued 
a  similar  policy  of  toleration  towards  Western  religions, 
and  their  establishments  Avere  numerous;  the  Jesuits 
alone  fell  under  his  displeasure,  from  their  inveterate 
habit  of  meddling  in  politics,  and  were  banished  from 
the  empire  in  1710. 

Peter's  intention,  not  only  to  preA'ent  clashing  of  au- 
thority between  Church  and  State,  but  also  to  make  the 
former  a  dependency  upon,  and  an  auxiliary  of,  the  latter, 


128       TIIK  UUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


proved  successful,  and  the  result  was,  to  his  own  mind, 
eminently  satisfactory.  On  hearing  read  a  comparison 
between  himself  and  Louis  XIV.,  greatly  in  his  own 
favor,  he  remarked  :  "  I  do  not  think  I  merit  the  prefer- 
ence given  to  me,  but  I  have  been  so  happy  as  to  be  su- 
perior to  tlie  French  monarch  in  one  essential  point ;  I 
have  forced  my  clergy  to  obedience  and  peace,  and 
Louis  allowed  himself  to  be  subjugated  by  his."  Peter's 
sense  of  the  great  importance  of  the  Church,  as  an  essen- 
tial element  of  government,  was  evinced  by  his  solicitude 
for  its  prosperity  and  dignity,  not  only  within  his  do- 
minions, but  wherever  the  Greek  faith  existed.  His  alms 
and  donations  to  the  churches  of  the  East  were  large 
and  frequent,  and  the  influence  of  his  government  was 
constantly  exercised  for  the  protection  of  his  co-religion- 
ists, wherever  found. 

At  the  union  of  the  Orthodox  churches  of  Lithuania 
and  Poland  to  the  see  of  Moscow,  and  as  one  of  the  con- 
ditions of  the  treaty  with  John  Sobiesky,  in  1()S5,  liberty 
of  conscience  and  freedom  of  worship  Avere  guaranteed 
to  the  adherents  of  the  Greek  faith.  Dijilomatic  stipu- 
lations, however,  proved  no  bar  to  the  spirit  of  intoler- 
ance, and  the  Orthodox  population  of  those  countries 
were  subjected  to  fierce  and  constant  j^ei'secution  on  the 
part  of  the  Catholics  and  Uniates.  "Within  a  fe-w  years 
every  Orthodox  bishop,  exce})t  Silvester  of  Mogilev,  was 
deposed  and  replaced  by  others  appointed  by  Cyprian, 
the  Uniate  metropolitan  of  I'olotsk,  an  apostate  from 
Orthodoxy,  and  its  bitter  enemy. 

Peter,  although  engaged  in  constant  and  tei-rible  wars, 
earnestly  remonstrated  and  threatened,  hut  received  in 
reply  only  empty  ])romises,  never  fulfilled.  The  high- 
handed measures  of  Cyprian  were  continued  by  his  suc- 
cessor, Leo  Zishka,  Avith  the  approval  of  the  national 


PERSECUTION  OF  THE  ORTHODOX  IN  POLAND.  129 

diet.  The  few  monasteries  and  churches,  which,  in  spite 
of  oppression,  had  maintained  a  struggling  existence, 
were  suppressed  and  their  property  confiscated,  while  all 
who  professed  the  Orthodox  faith  were  declared  inca- 
pable of  holding  pubhc  office.  From  1718  to  1720  fresh 
remonstrances  of  the  tsar,  then  at  the  zenith  of  his  pow- 
er, led  to  an  apparent  amelioration  in  the  condition  of 
the  Orthodox  sufferers.  Strict  orders  for  their  protection 
were  issued  by  Augustus  of  Poland,  and  the  papal  nuncio 
at  Warsaw  threatened  Avith  his  apostolic  curse  all  who 
should  disturb  the  peace  of  the  Ortliodox  Church,  but  the 
change  was  more  a])parent  than  real.  The  government 
in  Poland  was  never  sufficiently  strong  to  repress  the 
intemperate  zeal  of  the  clergy  and  the  Jesuits,  or  to 
afford  efficient  protection  to  the  Orthodox  peasant  from 
the  rapacious  exactions  of  his  Catholic  lord.  Continued 
persecutions  led  to  renewed  appeals  of  the  unhappy 
sufferers  to  the  Polish  king,  and  to  the  national  diet. 
Eussia,  under  the  successors  of  Peter  the  Great,  con- 
stantly interfered  in  their  behalf,  but  without  effectual 
result. 

In  1762,  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  George  Ko- 
minski,  the  Orthodox  bishop  of  White  Kussia,  laid  before 
King  Stanislas,  and  the  diet,  a  statement  of  the  sad  con- 
dition to  which  the  atlherents  of  the  Greek  faith  had 
been  reduced,  with  an  earnest  appeal  for  the  redress  of 
their  wrongs.  Two  hundred  of  their  churches  had  been 
forcibly  seized  and  given  over  to  the  Uniates ;  they  were 
prevented  from  repairing  their  ancient  edifices,  faUing 
into  ruins,  and  forbidden  to  erect  new  ones ;  their  priests 
were  hindered  in  their  ministrations,  imprisoned,  tor- 
tured, and  put  to  dcatli  witliout  any  form  of  trial ;  con- 
gregations Avere  dispersed  by  force ;  Orthodox  believers 
were  deprived  of  all  civil  rights;  freedom  of  worship 
9 


130  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


and  liberty  of  conscience,  so  often  promised,  had  become 
-words  without  meaning. 

The  patience  of  Russia  was  exhausted,  and  when  the 
Orthodox  Poles  appealed  to  Catherine  II.,  as  head  or  de- 
fender of  their  Church,  their  demands  for  religious  tol- 
eration, and  for  the  restoration  of  their  i)olitical  rights 
were  supported  by  Russian  armies  assembled  on  the 
frontier.  Stanislas  was  ready  with  promises,  but  his 
authority  was  impotent  before  the  fanatical  intolerance 
of  the  Cathohc  diet,  which,  in  1  TOO,  refused  to  accede  to 
any  change,  or  to  sanction  any  reform.  Catherine's  am- 
bassador, Repnine,  proved  equal  to  the  emergency,  and, 
calling  Russian  troops  into  Poland,  he  seized  the  Catho- 
lic prelates  Soltyk,  Bisho])  of  Cracow,  and  Zalusski, 
Bishop  of  Kiev,  who  were  most  bitter  in  their  o])posi- 
tion,  and  sent  them  prisoners  to  Russia.  This  energetic, 
but  high-  handed  measure,  although  a  violation  of  the 
law  of  nations,  received  general  approval  throughout 
Europe,  as  having  been  taken  in  defence  of  liberty  of 
conscience.  It  produced  the  desired  effect;  the  chet 
yielded,  recognized  the  principle  of  religious  toleration 
and  the  equal  rights  of  Orthodox  with  Catholic  subjects ; 
but  these  concessions,  exacted  by  force,  and  grudgingly 
assented  to,  only  embittered  the  strife.  This  great  re- 
ligious controversy  was  eventually  one  of  the  chief 
causes  of  the  fii'st  partition  of  Poland,  and  of  its  final 
division  in  1795,  when,  by  the  absorption  of  Polish  terri- 
tory, the  sway  of  Russia  again  reached  the  extreme  limits 
of  the  ancient  dominions  of  Ruric. 

In  strong;  contrast  Avith  the  fierce  intolerance  of  the 
Polish  government,  the  rule  of  Catherine  II.,  in  matters 
of  conscience,  was  mild  and  liberal.  Catholics  were  pro- 
tected, and  assured  of  immunity  from  persecution ;  even 
Jesuits,  then  under  the  ban  of  Europe  and  of  the  pope, 


ABSORPTION  OF  THE  UNIA  BY  ORTHODOXY.  131 

were  allowed  the  right  of  residence  in  "White  Russia. 
Her  Avise  and  judicious  policy  was  followed,  in  the  Polish 
provinces,  by  a  strong  reaction  in  favor  of  the  Orthodox 
faith,  and,  before  the  end  of  her  reign,  nearly  two  millions 
of  the  inhabitants  returned  to  their  fonner  belief.  The 
reactionary  religious  movement  led,  as  a  natural  conse- 
quence, to  the  healing  of  the  schism  in  the  Church,  and 
to  the  reunion  of  the  Unia  with  Orthodoxy.  This  re- 
sult became  the  ardent  desire  of  the  Uniate  clergy.  It 
was  earnestly  advocated  by  the  metropolitan  lleraclius 
Lisovsky,  early  in  the  nineteenth  centurj^  and  met  with 
warm  encouragement  from  the  Emperor  IS^icholas,  upon 
his  accession  to  the  thrones  of  Russia  and  Poland.  In 
1828,  he  established  in  Poland  a  spiritual  college  for  the 
Uniates,  under  the  direction  of  the  metro]X)litan  Josa- 
phat  Bulgak,  and  raised  the  Uniate  Church  to  a  footing 
of  perfect  equality  with  the  Roman  Catholic,  in  all  its 
rights  and  privileges.  The  Uniate  services  Avere  ])urilied 
of  all  changes  and  alterations  introduced  under  the  rule 
of  former  kings,  and  were  restored  according  to  the  an- 
cient rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church.  In 
1839,  the  Uniate  bishops  and  clergy,  assembled  in  council 
at  Polotsk,  under  Joseph  Siemaszko,  then  metropolitan, 
signed  an  act  declaring  it  to  be  their  Avish,  and  that  of 
their  entire  community,  to  be  received  back  into  full  and 
complete  communion  Avith  the  "  Holy  Orthodox  Catho- 
lic Eastern  Church,"  and  into  inseparable  union  Avith  the 
"Church  of  all  the  Russias."  Their  petition  Avas  pre- 
sented to  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  and,  by  him,  laid  before 
the  Most  Holy  Synod,  accompanied  by  declarations  to 
the  same  effect  from  the  entire  body  of  the  Uniate  cler- 
gy. The  petition  Avas  at  once  granted,  and  the  Holy 
Synod  decreed,  in  March,  1839,  Avith  the  ratification  of 
the  emperor,  "  To  receive  the  bishops,  clergy,  and  spir- 


132       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

itual  flocks  of  the  hitherto-called  Greek  IJniate  Church 
into  full  and  complete  communion  with  the  Holy  Ortho- 
dox Catholic  Church,  and  so  as  to  be  integrally  and  in- 
separably incor])orated  with  the  Church  of  all  the  Ilus- 
sias."  '  By  this  measure  about  two  milli(nis  of  Uniates 
were  joined  to  the  National  Church.  The  only  act  of 
profession  required  was  the  acknowledgment  "  that  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  the  One  True  Head  of  the  One 
True  Church,"  and  the  Holy  Synod,  with  Avise  and  Chris- 
tian forbearance,  recommended  "  that  an  apostolic  indul- 
gence should  be  exhibited  to  local  peculiarities  not  affect- 
ing the  Sacraments  or  Faith." " 

The  position  and  constitution  of  the  Church  in  Eussia 
remained  without  material  change  under  the  immechate 
successors  of  Peter  the  Great.  With  the  accession  of 
Ehzabeth,  in  1741,  the  old  Russian  party  obtained  the 
ascendency,  and  their  animosity  against  the  German  and 
foreign  element,  which  had  been  so  long  predominant, 
was  evinced  by  increase  of  Orthodox  zeal,  directed  against 
heretics  and  schismatics.  They  were  again  subjected  to 
violent  persecution ;  their  fanaticism  had  suffered  no 
diminution,  and,  rather  than  yield,  they  sought  voluntary 
immolation  by  hundreds  in  expectation  of  eternal  happi- 
ness. Elizabeth  was  under  the  influence  of  priests,  and 
acquiesced  in  their  bitter  opposition  to  native  Dissent, 
and  to  the  presence  in  Russia  of  strange  religions. 

The  Synod  ordered  the  suppression  of  Armenian  and 
Protestant  churches ;  Tatar  mosques  Avere  closed,  and 
Jews  were  expelled  from  the  empire  as  enemies  of 
"  Christ  our  Lord."  This  revival  of  clerical  intolerance 
was  accompanied  b}^  efforts  to  improve  the  internal  con- 
dition of  the  Church.    Theological  studies  in  Russian 


'  Mour.ivicf,  p.  44'). 


^  Ncale,  p.  57. 


ELIZABETH.— PETER  III.-CATHERINE  11.  133 

schools  Avere  as  puerile  as  at  the  universities  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  where  it  was  discussed  whether  Jesus,  at  his  ascen- 
sion, had  his  clothes  on  or  not ;  if  not,  did  he  appear 
naked  to  his  apostles?  if  he  had,  what  became  of  them? 
At  the  Academy  of  Moscow,  divines  seriously  debated 
whether  angels  reason  by  analysis  or  by  synthesis,  and 
what  may  be  the  nature  of  the  light  of  glory  in  the 
future  life.  The  ignorance  of  the  priests  was  severely 
reprobated;  learned  and  intelligent  professors  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  ecclesiastical  colleges,  and  attendance  was 
strictly  enforced. 

The  morals  of  the  clergy  were  corrected  by  the  rough 
disciphne  of  the  secular  arm ;  drunkenness  and  disorder 
were  punished  by  the  lash ;  scandalous  fairs,  where  dis- 
solute priests  and  mendicant  friars  let  out  their  services 
to  the  highest  bidder,  were  suppressed,  and  the  priests, 
who  thus  degraded  their  holy  olRce,  were  sent  to  the 
whipping-post.  The  filthy  condition  of  the  sacred  im- 
ages, and  of  the  churches,  was  stigmatized  as  a  shame, 
and  inspectors  were  appointed  to  keep  them  clean,  to 
maintain  decency  of  appearance  among  the  officiating 
clergy,  and  to  preserve  order  and  decorum  during  the 
services.  The  necessity  of  issuing  and  enforcing  regula- 
tions against  abuses  and  evils  of  so  gross  a  nature  is  suffi- 
cient comment  upon  the  deplorable  state  of  things  exist- 
ing in  the  lower  ranks  of  the  clergy,  and  among  the  de- 
vout, though  supei*stitious,  worshippers. 

The  sliort  reign  of  Peter  III.,  in  1702,  inaugurated  an 
era  of  toleration  and  religious  freedom,  as  he  felt  no  es- 
pecial sympathy  for  the  national  faith,  which  he  had 
emljraced,  under  compulsion,  at  his  accession  to  the 
throne.  He  checked  the  persecution  of  Dissenters,  and, 
by  promises  of  protection,  and  offers  of  grants  of  land  in 
Siberia,  he  encouraged  their  return  from  exile.  "  Mahom- 


134       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


etans,"  he  proclaimed  by  ukase,  and  even  idolaters,  are 
tolerated  in  the  empire ;  now  the  liaskolniks  (Dissenters) 
are  Christians." 

The  great  Catherine  continued,  in  matters  of  con- 
science, the  liberal  policy  of  her  husband  Peter  III.,  and 
exercised  severity  only  against  those  Avho  disturbed  pub- 
lic order,  and,  like  Pougatchev,  revolted  against  her  au- 
thority as  sovereign.  Her  measures  of  re])rcssion  were 
not  dictated  by  motives  of  religious  intolerance,  and  she 
assured  all  Dissenters,  who  were  willing  to  be  law-abiding 
and  faithful  subjects,  of  immunity  from  persecution  and 
of  her  ])rotection,  in  earnest  of  which  she  relieved  them 
of  the  double  tax  imposed  by  Peter  the  Great. 

She  permitted  the  establishment  of  foreign  religions, 
and,  in  order  to  peoi)le  the  fertile,  but  uninhabited,  re- 
gions of  the  Volga  and  the  Ukraine,  she  encouraged  im- 
migration, and  offered  in  her  realm  an  asylum  to  all 
persecuted  rehgious  sects,  with  unrestrained  liberty  of 
conscience.  Many  thousands  answered  her  a])peal,  and 
nearly  two  hundred  towns  sprang  into  existence  as  a 
consequence  of  this  wise  and  enlightened  policy. 

Animated  by  views  similar  to  those  of  her  great  pre- 
decessor, Peter,  and  determined  to  make  the  Church 
subservient  to  the  State,  she  resumed,  and  carried  into 
effect,  the  secularization  of  ecclesiastical  property.  An 
"Economical  Commission"  was  charged  with  its  admin- 
istration ;  the  monasteries,  converted  from  land-owning 
proprietors  to  crown  pensioners,  received  allowances, 
each  in  proportion  to  its  wants,  and  the  su!'j)lus  revenues 
were  applied  to  schools,  invalid  homes,  and  hospitals. 
In  her  corres])ondence  with  Voltaire  she  dwells  with 
com])lacency  uj)on  this  important  measure,  and  u})on  the 
liberal  s])irit  in  which  it  was  carried  into  effect.  "  I 
think,"  she  writes,  "you  would  be  pleased  with  this  as- 


EFFECT  OF  CHANGES  IN  CHURCH  GOVERNMENT.  135 

sembly,  where  an  Orthodox  believer  sits  between  a  here- 
tic and  a  Mussulman,  the  three  listening  to  an  idolater, 
and  all  four  consulting  together  how  to  render  their  con- 
clusions satisfactory  to  all." 

Beyond  her  own  dominions  Catherine  was  the  recog- 
nized, and  oft-appealed  to,  protector  of  the  Orthodox 
Chui'ch.  She  assumed  the  prerogative  of  "  Defender  of 
the  Faith,"  not  only  in  the  countries  along  her  borders, 
but  also  in  the  far  East,  where  a  quasi  right  of  protec- 
torate over  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  sultan  was  con- 
ceded by  the  treaty  of  Koutchouk-Kairnadji  in  1774. 
This  right,  much  cherished  by  Russian  sovereigns,  was 
frequently  asserted  and  maintained  by  arms,  until  wrest- 
ed from  Nicholas  by  the  disastrous  war  of  the  Crimea,  in 
1852. 

The  radical  changes  in  the  ecclesiastical  organization 
made  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  maintained  intact  by  his 
successors,  aided  by  the  extraordinary  growth  of  the 
power  of  Russia  and  of  its  monarchs,  the  absolutely  au- 
tocratic nature  of  its  government,  and  the  singularly  sub- 
missive disposition  of  the  Russian  people,  produced  in 
time  their  anticipated  result.  The  Church  lost  its  indi- 
viduality and  independence,  as  a  necessary  consequence 
of  the  impersonal  character  of  the  Holy  Synod,  its  gov- 
erning body  and  head.  Composed  of  many  men  hold- 
ing, Avith  few  exceptions,  their  positions  by  the  will  and 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  sovereign,  severally  liable  to  the 
influences  of  different,  and  possibly  conflicting,  motives, 
with  a  representative  of  the  emperor,  source  of  all  pow- 
er, in  their  midst,  the  Synod  no  longer  possessed  the  sin- 
gleness of  puqjose  and  the  unity  of  action  inherent  to  the 
authority  of  one  supreme  pontiff.  By  the  suppression  of 
the  patriarchate  all  danger  of  rivalry,  or  conflict,  between 
Church  and  State  was  averted,  but  with  it  disappeared,  as 


13G     '^'iii^  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent, 

well,  the  independence  of  the  former,  and  inucli  of  its 
energy  and  vitality.  It  became  practically,  what  it  now 
remains,  the  vassal  of  the  crown,  an  important,  even  the 
most  imi)ortant,  of  the  departments  of  government,  but 
still,  only  one  of  the  many  powers  which  make  up  the 
State,  whereof  the  tsar  is  absolute  head. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Influence  of  the  Religious  Element;  its  Development.  —  National 
Character  of  the  Church  ;  its  Isolation. — Differences  from  Catholic 
and  Protestant  Churches. —  Popes. —  Development  of  Church  and 
State  in  Russia. — Church  Government. 

The  influence  of  the  religious  element  in  the  history 
of  Russia,  and  of  its  people,  can  hardly  be  exaggerated. 
In  no  country  in  Europe  has  it  been  greater,  and  3'et,  as 
one  of  those  singular  contrasts  which  the  stud}^  of  Rus- 
sian civilization  presents,  Avhile  over  the  mass  of  the  na- 
tion its  power  is  and  has  been  constant,  nearly  absolute, 
the  upper  classes  have  to  a  great  degree  become  emanci- 
pated from  its  control,  and  indifferent  to  it.  Since  the 
days  of  Peter  the  Great  the  spirit  of  doubt  and  scepti- 
cism, characteristic  of  the  eighteenth  century,  has  per- 
vaded the  nobility  and  governing  classes ;  among  them 
Atheism  is  as  general  a  doctrine  as  Christianity,  and  in- 
fidelity has  supplanted  faith ;  but  the  great  body  of  the 
peo])le  have  never  risen  above  that  degree  of  civilization 
in  Avhich  all  new  ideas  generally,  and  naturally,  are  im- 
bued with  a  tincture  of  religion  or  superstition.  Russian 
peasants  arc  very  devout,  especially  those  Avho  belong 
to  the  dissenting  sects ;  among  others,  of  tlie  Orthodox 
creed,  religion  is  rather  a  mechanical  ritualism,  but  it 
holds  them  under  bonds  as  severe  as  those  of  the  most 
intense  fanaticism.  Evidence  of  the  wonderful  vitality 
of  the  religious  principle  among  them  is  seen  in  its  fe- 
cundity ;  it  has  given  rise  to  innumerable  sects,  and  oth- 
ers are  constantly  appearing ;  but  this  principle,  so  deep- 


138       THE  KUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ly  rooted  in  the  heart  of  the  Kussian  peasant,  is  not 
entirely,  and  necessarily,  always  Christian  in  its  nature. 
The  conversion  of  the  llussian  people  in  the  Middle  Ages 
was  sudden,  and  easily  accomplished  at  the  coniniand  of 
its  ])rinces,  and  was,  in  the  same  degree,  superficial ;  the 
spirit  of  Christianity  never  permeated  the  masses  so 
thoroughly,  nor  triumphed  so  completely  over  the  an- 
cient religions  as  elsewhere  in  the  West.  Many  pagan 
ceremonies  were  partially  engrafted  on  the  services  of 
the  Church,  while  much  of  the  old  pagan  superstition  re- 
mained in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  covered  up  and  con- 
cealed by  a  Christian  exterior,  but  still  exercising,  even 
to  the  present  day,  unconscious  influence  over  their  re- 
ligious conceptions. 

The  ceremonies  of  the  Church  recall  to  them  the  mag- 
ical incantations  of  their  heathen  ancestors.  The  ])eas- 
ant  imagines  that  the  priest  possesses  the  secret  of  pro- 
pitiating the  heavenly  powers  by  the  rites  of  the  altar ; 
that  St.  Vlas,  the  cattle-preserver,  St.  Elia,  the  rain-giver, 
St.  George,  the  ])atron  of  wolves,  all  yield  to  priestly  in- 
tercession. By  it  he  can  secure  good  harvests  and  increase 
of  his  flocks. 

Attributes  of  pagan  deities  have  been  transferred  to 
po])ular  saints  of  the  Russian  calendar,  and  the  whole 
universe  teems  with  imaginary  beings  of  superhuman 
nature,  who,  to  the  peasant,  have  a  real  existence ;  he 
believes  that  when  Satan  fell  from  heaven  his  hosts 
found  refuge,  some  under  the  earth,  as  gnomes,  others 
in  the  elements  of  earth,  air,  and  water,  or  about  the 
domestic  hearth,  as  s])i"ites ;  when  hunting,  he  offers  to 
the  Lyeshi,  or  Avood-dcmons,  the  first  game  he  kills;  if 
he  be  sick,  he  leaves  in  the  forest' a  bit  of  bretul  or  salt, 
with  an  invocation  to  the  sylvan  deity.  The  leaven  of 
this  pagan  mythology  still  ferments  in  the  peasant  mind. 


RELIGIOUS  CONDITION  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  PEOPLE.  I39 

The  old  belief  could  not  be  readily  set  aside,  and  was 
engrafted  on  the  new ;  hence  the  epithet  "  two-faithed," 
often  applied  to  the  Russian  people  by  their  old  writ- 
ers. 

The  three  spiritual  conditions — paganism,  Christianity, 
and  scepticism — Avhich,  in  other  countries,  generally  cor- 
respond to  consecutive  phases  of  their  development,  are, 
in  Russia,  still  recognizable  in  singular  admixture,  l^ot- 
withstanding  this  apparent  confusion  of  ideas  upon  re- 
ligion, which  seems  to  pervade  whole  classes  of  society, 
the  Church,  as  such,  has  always  carefully  preserved  the 
ancient  purity  of  its  faith,  without  change  or  corruption, 
as  it  came  originally  from  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus. 

Christianity  in  Russia  is  not  merely  a  creed  or  a  rehg- 
ion ;  it  is,  above  all,  a  national  institution ;  the  first,  the 
most  venerable,  and  the  most  popular.  Scepticism,  in 
modern  days,  may  be  rampant,  self-asserting,  and  wide- 
spread, but  the  Church  is  never  assailed ;  its  cliildren 
may  have  lost  faith  in  its  teachings,  it  still  retains  its 
hold  upon  their  affection  and  their  sympathies. 

As  in  England,  the  Church  in  Russia  is  a  national 
Church ;  it  is  also  a  member  of  a  great  Christian  com- 
munion, Avhich  rises  above  kingdoms  and  nationaUties, 
and  claims  universal  homage  as  the  Holy,  Catholic,  Apos- 
tolic, Orthodox  Church.  When  it  separated  from  Rome 
its  adherents  numbered  barely  twenty  millions;  now 
they  exceed  eighty  millions;  of  these  sixty  are  under 
Russian  rule,  and,  of  the  remainder,  about  half  arc  of  the 
Slavonic  race,  subjects  of  Turkey  or  Austria.  Although 
designated  as  the  Greek  Church,  it  embraces  many  branch- 
es of  the  Imman  family,  and,  of  these,  the  Slavonic  is  the 
one  ])red()minant ;  it  rules  over  many  nations,  of  which 
the  most  civilized,  and  by  far  the  most  powerful,  is  Rus- 
sia.   As  Catholicism  may  be  termed  the  Latin  form  of 


140        'J'lU'^  KUSSIAN  CIIUUCII  AND  UUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


Christianity,  and  Protestantism  the  Germanic,  so  Ortho- 
doxy is  the  Slavonic. 

There  is  a  singular  coincidence  in  the  slight  influence 
exercised  by  the  Orthodox  Cliurch  and  the  Slav  race 
upon  European  civilization.  Had  they  never  existed 
their  absence  would  have  been  hardly  perceptible,  Avhere- 
as  modern  culture  and  development  would  be  scarcely 
conceivable  without  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  or 
without  the  Latin  and  Germanic  races. 

The  reasons  for  this  striking  inferiority,  often  and 
unjustly  attributed  solely  to  the  Eastern  Church,  are 
manifold.  Among  them  are,  chiefly,  the  troubled,  anx- 
ious political  destinies  of  the  nations  acknowledging  its 
sway :  their  isolated  geographical  situation,  far  from 
the  centres  of  intellectual  life ;  their  position  as  forlorn 
hopes  of  European  civilization  and  Christianity  against 
barbai'ic  and  infidel  invasion  from  Asia,  and  their  relig- 
ious, as  well  as  their  geographical"  separation  from  the 
rest  of  the  civilized  world,  which  was  a  consequence  of  the 
bitter  hostility  of  Rome.  Other  reasons,  of  a  secondary 
nature,  may  be  traced  to  the  difi^ercnt  conceptions,  in  the 
East  and  in  the  West,  of  the  mission  and  duty  of  the 
Church.  The  progressive  element,  and  the  gradual  de- 
velopment of  Christian  truth,  recognized  by  one  com- 
munion, were  ignored  by  the  other.  Rome  admitted  the 
principle  of  continual  growth  in  religious  knowledge,  of 
constantly  clearer  manifestations  of  the  faith,  of  further 
revelations  of  the  sacred  mysteries  to  be  attained  b}^  study 
of  the  Word.  To  the  Eastern  theologian  this  idea  was 
impious  and  damnable ;  for  him  the  hour  of  discussion 
Avas  closed  by  the  decisions  of  the  oecumenical  councils 
anterior  to  the  rupture  between  the  Churches.  The  whole 
truth  had  been  proclaimed,  to  which  nothing  could  be 
added  and  nothing  taken  away.    The  limitations  of  the 


GREEK  AND  LATIN  CHURCHES.— DIFFERENCES.  141 

faith,  thus  forever  established,  without  possibility  of 
change,  the  Greek  believer  could,  it  is  true,  within  those 
limits,  exercise  perfect  freedom  of  personal  interpreta- 
tion, without  fear  of  encountering  more  precise,  authori- 
tative definitions  in  the  future,  and  the  field  open  for 
discussion  appeared  the  more  vast,  as  the  space  circum- 
scribed by  unalterable  dogmas  w*as  the  more  restricted. 
The  result  is  apparent  in  the  numerous  sects  and  schisms 
Avithin  the  fold  of  the  Eastern,  and,  at  a  later  day,  of  the 
Russian,  Church,  but  the  very  immutability  of  the  dogma 
tended  to  limit  investigation  to  matters  of  minor  impor- 
tance, just  at  the  period  when  human  thought  and  study 
were  concentrated  chiefly  on  religious  topics.  At  Rome, 
on  the  contrary,  while  individual  opinion  was  always 
subject  to  decisions  of  the  Church  made  obligatory  on 
its  adherents,  the  possibihty  of  influencing  those  decis- 
ions was  a  constant  stimulus  to  the  development  of  intel- 
lectual activity  ujion  questions  of  highest  moment,  and 
gradually  extended  its  sphere  of  action  to  all  branches  of 
philosophy  and  modern  science. 

With  this  notable  difference  in  the  conception  of  the 
true  development  of  Christian  dogma,  there  is  another, 
still  more  important,  in  the  views  held  upon  ecclesiastical 
authority.  On  this  point  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins  are 
completely  antagonistic.  Bishops  and  priests  are  recog- 
nized among  them  both,  but  the  Greeks  do  not  accept 
any  centralization  of  the  power  of  the  Church  ;  they  do 
not  acknowledge  any  living  chief  before  whom  all  must 
bow.  Jesus  Christ  is,  for  them,  the  only  Head  of  the 
Church,  and  He  has  no  vicar  on  earth.  The  infallibility 
of  the  pope,  and  his  supreme  control,  was  the  rock  upon 
which  the  Churches  split.  The  Greeks  refuse  allegiance 
to  any  other  general  authority  than  that  of  the  Avhole 
Church  in  council  assembled,  and  deny  the  existence  of 


142       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

any  ])ermanent,  living,  personal  head  ;  no  individual  pon- 
tiff can  speak  in  the  name  of  the  Church,  or  Avield  its 
power;  that  supreme  prerogative  belongs  only  to  an  (Ecu- 
menical Council.  The  Synod  of  liussia,  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  may  censure  or  direct;  their  decisions 
are  not  infallible,  nor  are  they  binding  beyond  the  lim- 
its of  their  own  jurisdiction ;  even  within  them,  personal 
opinions,  individual  consciences,  are  free,  save  in  so  far 
as  the  civil  authority  may  lend  its  power  to  enforce  the 
Church's  decree.  Eecognizing  no  visible  head,  there  has 
been  no  need  of  any  local  centre,  of  any  Holy  City,  or 
of  any  spiritual  monarch,  vested,  for  his  safeguard,  with 
temporal  power,  and  raised,  as  representative  of  divine 
right,  by  common  consent  of  the  faithful,  above  poten- 
tates and  peoples. 

As  a  consequence,  nations  following  the  Eastern  creed 
have  been  spared  the  fierce  and  bloody  struggles  between 
Church  and  State  which  have  devastated  the  West,  but, 
as  a  further  consequence,  it  has  often  happened  that  the 
State  has  encroached  upon  the  Church,  and  made  it  sub- 
servient to  its  policy. 

Decentralization  has  been  characteristic  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Church;  it  possesses  unity  of  faith  and  of  dogma 
without  unity  of  government ;  it  is  modelled  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  nationalities,  and  is  constituted  of  many  national 
and  independent  establishments,  auto-cephalous,  each  one 
having  its  own  administration  and  language,  and  its  pe- 
culiar rites,  united  only  by  the  spiritual  bond  of  a  com- 
mon belief ;  each  one  limited  by  the  frontiers  of  its  own 
country,  and  the  extent  of  its  jurisdiction  measured  by 
the  territory  of  the  State  on  Avliich  it  depends.  It  is  oth- 
erwise in  the  Catholic  Church,  where  the  constant  ten- 
dency is  to  one  centre,  effacing  more  and  more  geograph- 
ical separation  and  political  boundaries,  to  claim  univer- 
sal dominion. 


EFFECT  UPON  THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH.  143 

The  inevitable  result  of  this  national  character  of  Or- 
thodox Churches  has  been  increase  of  the  influence  of  the 
civil  power  over  the  ecclesiastic,  and,  in  proportion  as  the 
government  has  been  the  stronger,  this  result  has  been 
the  more  perceptible ;  it  has  been  especially  so  in  Russia, 
under  absolute  and  autocratic  rule.  Throughout  the 
history  of  this  empire,  harmony  and  concord  have  ever 
marked  the  relations  of  the  two  powers ;  religious  zeal 
has  stimulated  patriotic  devotion;  the  Church  has  ear- 
nestly co-operated  in  the  creation  and  estabUshmcnt  of 
the  State,  and  participated  in  its  triumph  over  domestic, 
as  well  as  over  foreign  foes ;  but  it  has  fallen  under  the 
control  of  the  State ;  the  priest  has  become  a  functionary, 
and  the  Church,  a  department  of  the  government.  Intel- 
lectual stagnation  followed  the  loss  of  its  independence, 
and  helped  to  aggravate  the  evil,  peculiar  to  Russia,  of 
isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world.  The  cler- 
gy submissively  acquiesced  in  barring  the  influx  of  for- 
eign ideas,  and  fostered  the  growth  of  national  preju- 
dices, as  well  as  of  patriotic  sentiment.  This  isolation 
was  also,  in  some  measure,  due  to  the  national  character 
which  distinguished  the  Russian,  as  it  did  all  (Orthodox, 
Churches.  Having  no  common  religious  centre,  there 
was  seldom  need,  or  desire,  for  intercommunication  ;  the 
various  national  establishments  were  interested,  each 
only  in  its  own  domestic  affairs,  and  their  intercourse, 
one  with  another,  was  infrequent  and  exceptional.  The 
use  of  the  Slavonic  tongue  was  an  important  element  in 
the  early  success  of  the  Church,  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  rapid  dissemination  of  its  doctrines  among  the 
people,  but  it  followed  that  Latin,  the  common  mc<lium 
of  communication  between  the  learned  of  all  countries, 
was  never  an  essential  feature  of  clerical  education,  and, 
consequently,  not  only  was  the  intellectual  isolation  of 


144     Till':  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent. 

Ilussia  (greatly  increased,  but  the  clergy,  shut  out  from 
the  study  of  classic  literature,  were,  as  a  body,  afflicted 
witli  gross  ignorance,  degenerating  into  superstition,  and 
the  standai-d  of  morals  among  them  was  lowered  to  the 
level  of  their  intellectual  condition. 

As  regards  rites  and  ceremonies  the  Eussian  differs 
Avidely  from  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  Churches. 
It  is  essentially  ritualistic,  and  rigidly  adheres  to  the 
practices  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  It  is  often 
reproached  with  stifling  the  essence  of  religious  belief 
under  outward  forms.  This  accusation  is,  however,  true 
only  in  part,  and  the  fact,  such  as  it  exists,  is  attributable 
more  to  the  character  and  disposition  of  the  Slavonic  and 
Eastern  races,  than  to  any  fault  of  the  Church ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  has,  from  the  earliest  ages,  endeavored  to 
guard  against  superstition  and  the  surreptitiously  de- 
grading influences  of  the  senses.  It  has  shown  constant 
hostility  to  the  most  corrupting  of  all  external  obser- 
vances, that  of  image  worship ;  statues  have  never  been 
admitted  to  its  temples,  and  all  pictorial  illustrations  have 
been  restricted  to  unchanging  traditional  types,  covered 
with  metal,  save  the  face  and  hands,  ancient,  expression- 
less, and  austere ;  the  bishop,  at  his  consecration,  prom- 
ises "  to  provide  that  honor  shall  be  paid  to  God  only, 
not  to  the  holy  pictures,  and  that  no  false  miracle  shall 
be  ascribed  to  them."  The  Virgin  Mary,  the  apostles, 
and  the  saints  receive,  not  adoration  as  gods,  but  a  sec- 
ondary devotion,  as  due  to  those  cleansed  from  original 
sin,  and  admitted  to  behold  the  Deity.' 

Musical  instruments  have  always  been  prohibited,  and 
the  human  voice  only  has  been  heard  in  its  chants,  as  in 
its  prayers.    Its  efforts  in  this  direction  have  been  in 


'  Uare,  "Studies  ia  Russia,"  p.  57. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES.  145 

vain,  and  even  v/orse,  as  they  have  tended  to  deprive 
Russian  civilization  of  the  humanizing  influences  of  the 
arts ;  but  the  spirit  of  f ormalisni,  of  f eticism,  with  which 
the  Church  has  been  so  often,  so  bitterly,  and  so  unjustly 
reproached,  arises  rather  from  the  realistic,  material  char- 
acter of  the  races  subject  to  its  sway,  from  their  ignorance 
and  proneness  to  superstition,  and  from  their  low  intel- 
lectual development.  For  the  Russian  peasant,  whose 
mind  is  still  imbued  with  vague  traditional  reminiscences 
of  his  ancestral  pagan  worship,  form  and  ceremony  alone 
constitute  religion ;  and  his  attachment  to  outward  ob- 
servances, his  fidelity  to  rites  consecrated  by  ancient 
usage,  have  given  rise  to  obstinate  schisms  and  dissen- 
sions, Avhich  still  disturb  the  Church. 

In  the  process  of  time,  and  notwithstanding  their  com- 
mon origin,  material  differences  have  arisen  in  the  form 
of  the  rites  and  ceremonies  practised  by  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches;  these  differences  have  been  accom- 
panied by  a  gradual,  and  finally  a  radical,  divergence  of 
opinion  as  to  the  essential  meaning  and  importance  of  the 
ceremonial  observances.  The  two  Churches  have  the  same 
sacraments,  inherited  from  the  same  source,  but  they  are 
conceived  in  a  widely  different  spirit,  and  have  a  very  dif- 
ferent application  and  influence  in  the  one,  and  in  the  other. 

Among  the  Orthodox,  baptism  is  administered  by  im- 
mersion only,  and  the  validity  of  the  "Western  ceremony, 
of  merely  sprinkling,  is,  by  many  of  them,  gravely  ques- 
tioned; it  was  for  a  long  time  absolutely  denied,  and 
converts  to  their  faith  were  rebaptized,  as  a  necessary 
introduction  to  the  true  Christian  communion.  In  the 
Greek  Church  of  Constantinople  this  custom  is  still 
maintained,  and  constitutes  tlie  only  essential  point  of 
difference  from  the  Russian  Church,  where,  in  this  re- 
spect, more  liberal  ideas  now  prevail. 
10 


146       THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUUCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

The  Lord's  Supper  is  .administered  by  tlie  Greek 
Church  as  it  is  among  Protestants;  the  communicant 
partakes,  with  the  clergy,  of  the  consecrated  bread  and 
wine,  and  attaches  vast  importance  to  tliis  ])rivilege,  as 
establishing  his  equality  with  the  priesthood  in  the  eye 
of  God.  Contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Latin  Church, 
it  uses  leavened,  instead  of  unleavened,  bread,  as  the  true 
symbol  of  the  Pascal  feast ;  while  it  recognizes,  like  the 
Latin,  the  real  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
it  does  not  pretend  so  precisely  to  designate  the  moment 
and  manner  of  the  transubstantiation,  and  claims,  in  con- 
sequence, a  more  spiritual  interpretation  of  the  mystery. 
A  yearly  confession  and  attendance  at  the  holy  table  is 
made  com])ulsory  by  law,  and  the  great  mass  of  the 
Russian  people,  although  scrupulous  to  the  extreme  in 
the  discharge  of  their  religious  duties,  have  come  to  con- 
sider an  annual  celebration  of  the  festival  as  suiRcient ; 
the  more  ])iously  inclined  may,  in  the  excess  of  their  de- 
votion, repeat  it  three  or  four  times ;  but,  even  among 
the  most  devout,  a  monthly  communion  is  more  unusual 
than  is  its  weekly  observance  among  Catholics.  So  rare 
a  participation  in  this  most  sacred  of  the  sacraments,  and 
the  season  of  prayer  and  fasting  enjoined  as  preparation 
for  it,  should,  it  would  seem,  invest  it  with  peculiar  sol- 
emnity ;  but  the  general  habit  of  all  flocking  to  the  altar 
at  the  same  period,  together  with  its  perfunctory  nature, 
diminishes  its  effect  upon  the  individual  imagination,  and 
has  reduced  it  to  the  level  of  mere  ceremonial  routine. 
Being  obligatory,  and  a  pecuniary  charge  as  Avell,  the 
peasant,  notwithstanding  his  devout  and  superstitious 
character,  is  inclined  to  shirk  communion  as  often  as  he 
dares.  Official  reports  show  that  frequently,  in  parishes 
of  three  or  four  thousand  inhabitants,  not  more  than  two 
or  three  hundred  partake  of  it.    There  is,  moreover,  in 


DIFFERENCES  IN  RITES.— CONFESSION.  147 

the  Eussian  Church  no  first  communion,  properly  so 
called ;  infants  are  admitted  to  the  holy  table,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  practice  of  the  primitive  Church. 
There  is  no  long  preliminaiy  prejiaration  for  this  in- 
itiation to  the  body  of  the  elect,  filhng  the  youthful 
mind  with  religious  awe  and  reverence,  and  which, 
among  Catholics,  and  many  Protestant  sects,  marks 
the  event  as  one  ever  to  be  remembered.  Religion 
thus  becomes  a  less  important  element  of  early  educa- 
tion, and  loses  much  of  its  practical  influence  on  after- 
life. 

The  sacrament  of  the  holy  chrism  replaces  confirma- 
tion, but  it  does  not  correspond  to  the  similar  ceremony 
of  the  Catholic  Church  ;  always  following  the  custom  of 
the  earl}'  Cliristians,  it  is,  by  Russians,  conferred  immedi- 
ately after  baptism,  and  may  be  administered  by  a  priest, 
not  necessarily  by  the  bishop. 

Auricular  confession  exists,  and  in  Russia,  as  among 
Catholics,  the  inviolability  of  its  secret  is  protected  by 
law,  save  in  cases  of  political  conspiracies.  It  is,  how- 
ever, held  in  very  different  estimation,  and  practised  in  a 
different  manner;  it  is  shorter  and  more  general,  less 
explicit,  less  exacting,  and  less  frequent ;  it  is  restricted 
to  sins  of  a  grave  and  serious  nature,  without  entering 
into  matters  of  thought  or  conscience,  or  the  minute 
specific  detail  of  daily  life ;  it  is  free  from  the  inquisito- 
rial, suggestive,  often  repugnant,  investigation  into  per- 
sonal and  family  affairs  by  the  priest,  and  is,  to  a  far 
less  degree,  an  instrument  of  power  and  authority  for 
the  clergy.  A  few  general  questions,  and  the  stereotype 
reply,  "  I  am  a  sinner,"  comprise  all  that  is  usualh'  nec- 
essary for  absolution  ;  there  is  no  confessional  or  pri- 
vacy ;  the  priest  and  the  penitent  stand  face  to  face,  gen- 
erally, but  not  always,  separated  from  the  congregation 


148       THE  RUSSIAN  CHUKCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

by  a  screen.  During  Lent  the  Church  is  crowded  by  the 
faithful,  wlio,  ranged  in  long  processions,  press  one  upon 
another,  with  tapers  in  their  hands,  frequently  bowing 
the  head,  and,  in  accordance  with  Ilussian  custom,  mak- 
ing repeated  signs  of  tlie  cross  ;  each  one,  advancing  in 
turn,  answers  the  priest's  questions  with  the  usual  for- 
mula, receives  absolution,  and,  passing  on,  lights  his  ta- 
per, and,  Avith  renewed  genuflexions  and  crossings,  places 
it  before  the  holy  images ;  a  few  days  afterwards  he  re- 
turns for  communion.  The  confessional  rite  thus  reduced 
to  the  utmost  simplicity  may,  for  the  piously  inclined, 
be  full  of  solemn  meaning ;  but  for  the  multitude  it  is 
only  a  duty  ordained  by  law,  and  to  be  performed  at 
stated  intervals.  That  the  holiest  and  most  spiritual  of 
the  sacraments  should,  in  the  estimation  of  a  peo])le  nat- 
urally of  so  devout  a  temperament,  have  degenerated 
into  mere  formal  and  external  observances,  and  have  lost 
their  vivifying  influence,  is  caj^able  of  various  explana- 
tions. Their  obligatory  nature  has  much  to  do  with  it. 
The  State  has  here  lent  its  aid  to  enforce  the  commands 
of  the  Church  ;  it  is  an  article  of  the  code  that  every 
Ilussian  subject  shall  make  confession,  and  2)artake  of 
communion,  at  least  once  in  every  year ;  and  the  civil  and 
military  authorities  are,  with  the  clergy,  charged  with 
the  execution  of  the  law.  These  enactments  have  fallen 
into  partial  disuse ;  the  progress  of  civilization,  and  of 
liberal  ideas,  render  their  universal  application  impracti- 
cable; still  they  exist  for  the  intimidation  of  some,  a 
stimulus  to  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  others.  Certificates  of 
confession  are  given  with  absolution  ;  lists  of  the  com- 
municants of  each  })arish  are  sent  annually  to  the  bishop, 
and,  by  him,  those  of  the  diocese  are  sent  to  the  Synod, 
to  be  embodied  in  the  tabular  statistics  submitted  to 
the  emperor.    Compulsion  is  seldom  employed,  but  the 


EFFECTS.— EXACTIONS  OF  THE  CLERGr.— POPES.  149 

"  moujik  "  '  wishes  to  avoid  the  vexation  of  official  super- 
vision ;  petty  employees  seek  to  curry  favor  with  their 
superiors,  and  the  law  affords  an  opportunity  for  them 
to  display  their  alacrity.  Eeligious  duties,  thus  de- 
graded to  the  level  of  pohce  regulations,  are  performed 
in  the  same  spirit  as  that  in  which  the  latter  are  obeyed. 

Another  explanation  is  found  in  the  poverty  of  the 
clergy,  and  the  inadequate  provision  by  the  State  for 
their  maintenance.  Thej^  depend,  for  their  support,  upon 
the  contributions  they  can  levy  upon  their  parishioners, 
and  expect  payment  for  the  duties  they  discharge.  Every 
sacrament — confession  and  communion,  as  well  as  bap- 
tism, marriage,  and  burying — is  a  matter  of  bargain ;  no 
recognized  tariff  exists,  but  a  gift  is  exacted,  of  which 
only  the  amount  is  voluntary.  The  sinner  compounds 
with  the  Church,  and  his  penance  is  in  inverse  propor- 
tion to  his  liberality.  The  authority  and  influence  of 
the  priesthood  suffer ;  the  sacred  office,  and  he  who  holds 
it,  are  degraded  by  this  chaffering  over  a  ])rice  for  the 
highest  privileges  of  the  Christian  faith. 

The  position  of  a  Russian  pope  towards  his  flock  dif- 
fers greatly  from  that  of  the  Catholic  priest.  Not  celi- 
bacy, but  marriage,  is  obligatory  for  him  ;  the  common 
existence  of  family  ties  draws  him  and  his  parishioners 
more  nearly  together,  and  makes  their  interests  analo- 
gous. They  create,  as  with  the  Protestant  clergy,  a 
stronger  feeling  of  mutual  sympathy,  a  greater  commu- 
nity of  ideas  and  sentiments ;  while  they  also  tend  to 
diminish  pastoral  authority,  and  to  check  the  reverential 
respect  involuntarily  shown  to  those  who,  from  noble 
and  lofty  motives,  make  the  sacrifice  of  the  purest  joys 


•  Moujik  is  the  diminutive  of  the  Russian  word  "movje,"  man,  the 
Latin  ur,  and  designates  the  peasant  or  serf. 


150       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

granted  to  mankind.  Ordination  in  the  Russian  Church 
is  not  necessarily  for  life ;  a  priest  may  be  relieved  of 
his  vows  by  the  Holy  Synod.  If  convicted  of  crime,  he 
may,  like  any  functionary,,  be  degraded  from  his  olSce ; 
the  death  of  his  Avife  (a  second  marriage  is  not  permit- 
ted) deprives  him  of  his  sacred  character,  and  he  can  no 
longer  officiate.  In  a  word,  the  Russian  pope  is  rather  a 
minister  at,  and  a  servant  of  the  altar,  than  the  represen- 
tative of  the  Deity. 

The  clergy  of  the  Orthodox,  like  that  of  the  Catholic, 
Church  is  divided  into  the  regular  and  secular  bodies ; 
but  here  again  wide  differences  prevail.  In  Russia  there 
are  monks  and  nuns  under  vows  of  celibacy,  but  there 
are  no  religious  orders ;  there  are  numerous  monasteries 
and  convents,  but  they  are  isolated  establishments,  inde- 
pendent of  one  another.  Great  federated  communities, 
united  under  central  governments,  constituting  formida- 
ble spiritual  powers  within  the  State  and  the  Church,  do 
not  exist. 

As  regards  marriage,  the  Orthodox  agree  in  many  re- 
spects with  the  Catholic ;  they  hold  it  to  be  a  sacrament 
of  the  Church.  There  is,  in  Russia,  no  civil  ceremony. 
They  do  not  look  with  favor  upon  remarrying,  and, 
while  they  tolerate  a  second  and  a  third  marriage,  under 
penances,  the  Church  canons  prohibit  a  fourth.  They 
declare  the  tie  to  be  indissoluble,  but  the  law  considers 
physical  defect,  absence  for  five  years,  and  adultery  suf- 
ficient causes  for  separation ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  inno- 
cent spouse  may  marry  again,  but  the  guilty  one  cannot. 

From  this  comparison  it  is  evident  that,  contrary  to 
what  is  generally  supposed,  the  differences  between  the 
Russian  and  other  Churches,  not  of  the  Orthodox  creed, 
are  in  reality  fundamental,  and  not  merely  superficial ; 
they  do  not  consist  simply  in  slight  variations  and  di- 


TEXDEXCIES  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  CHURCHES.  151 

vergences  in  the  performance  of  similar  rites  and  cere- 
monies, while  the  creed  and  the  trachtions,  the  hierarchy 
and  the  sacraments,  remain  the  same ;  they  go  deeper ; 
the}'"  affect  the  conception  of  Christian  truth,  and  the 
spirit  of  Christian  worship,  and  are  manifest  in  the  dif- 
ferent influences  exerted  by  the  difi'erent  Churches  upon 
the  government  of  nations,  and  upon  the  development  of 
civilization. 

The  Catholic,  by  its  concentration,  by  its  regular  hier- 
archy under  a  supreme  head,  by  the  spirit  of  obedience 
and  submission  which  it  inculcates,  by  the  power  and 
authority  conferred  upon  its  chief,  and  by  its  aim  at  uni- 
versal dominion,  tends  to  centralization,  and  favors  the 
principle  of  absolute  monarchy. 

The  Protestant,  by  its  latitude  in  matters  of  faith,  by 
its  spirit  of  inquiry  and  freedom  of  interpretation,  by  the 
liberty  of  thought  which  it  encourages,  b}^  its  division  into 
various  sects  and  their  independence  of  each  other,  tends 
to  decentraUzation,  and  sympathizes  with  the  principle 
of  a  representative,  or  republican  form  of  government. 

The  Orthodox,  fixed  and  immutable  in  its  traditions 
and  belief,  although  without  any  supreme  authority 
over  it,  is  conservative  in  its  tendency ;  allowing  wide 
scope,  within  defined  hmits,  to  individual  opinion,  it  per- 
mits a  certain  freedom  of  thought ;  having  no  political 
proclivities,  it  neither  advocates,  nor  favors,  any  special 
form  of  government,  but  accords  with  existing  institu- 
tions, if  they  be  not  hostile  to  Christian  truth.  While 
not  actually  progressive,  it  is  no  enemy  to  progress,  and 
allows  the  free  development  of  the  nations  over  Avhich 
it  holds  sway,  according  to  the  national  genius  of  each, 
and  according  to  the  influences  which  may  surround  it; 
it  is  equally  at  home  in  democratic  Greece,  and  in  auto-' 
cratic  Kussia. 


152       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Orthodoxy  appears  to  occupy  an  intermediate  place 
between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  but  it  would  be 
a  grave  error  to  suppose  that  it  accepts  this  position  in 
any  timid  or  halting  spirit,  or  as  being  in  any  Avise  one 
of  transition,  as  if  emanating  from  the  former  and  gradu- 
ally tending  to  the  latter.  On  the  contrary,  it  unhesi- 
tatingly asserts  its  claim  to  be  the  sole  legitimate  heir  of 
the  primitive  Church,  unchangeable  and  ever  unchang- 
ing, immutable  from  the  beginning,  founded  upon  apos- ' 
folic  truth  as  upon  a  rock.  Far  from  seeking  alliance 
with  either,  it  looks  down  upon  them  both,  with  pitying 
disdain,  as  wandering  and  estranged  from  Christ. 

Christianity  in  Russia  has,  from  its  introduction,  been 
subject  to  the  principle  of  development  peculiar  and  in- 
herent to  Orthodoxy.  The  Church  has  adapted  itself  to, 
and  modelled  itself  upon,  the  political  constitution  of  the 
nation  ;  it  has  extended  its  jurisdiction  as  the  geograph- 
ical boundaries  of  the  empire  have  been  enlarged. 

The  degree  of  independence  which  it  has  enjoyed  in 
its  connection  with  the  State,  and  the  freedom  it  has 
allowed  to  those  within  its  bosom,  have  been  in  harmony 
with  the  character  of  the  national  institutions ;  and  the 
method  of  its  administration  has  corresponded  to  that  of 
the  civil  government.  The  autocratic  principle,  imposed 
upon  the  people  by  its  rulers,  did  not  have  its  rise  in  any 
timid  subserviency  on  the  part  of  the  Church ;  it  existed 
already  in  the  nature  of  the  governing  power ;  it  was 
recognized  by  the  Church,  as  Avell  as  by  the  nation,  and, 
under  its  influence,  the  one  assumed  its  natural  position 
of  relative  dependency,  and  the  other  was  reduced  to 
absolute  subjection.  In  this  result  of  dependency  on  the 
State  the  Church  has  never  felt,  nor  acknowledged,  any 
degradation  of  its  sacred  character;  in  its  own  estima- 
tion, and  as  its  disciples  declare,  it  has  been  guided  by 


HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHURCH.  153 

its  universal  practice,  and  by  its  early  traditions,  as  ex- 
emplified in  the  relations  which  existed  between  the 
primitive  Church  and  the  first  Byzantine  emperors. 

For  a  proper  appreciation  of  this  view  of  its  position 
towards  the  State,  it  is  necessary  to  follow  the  gradual 
development  of  the  one  alongside  of  the  other,  through 
the  tolerably  distinct  phases,  or  periods,  of  Eussian  eccle- 
siastical history.  These  are,  broadly :  first,  the  period 
of  the  complete  dependence  of  the  Church  upon  the  See 
of  Constantinople ;  second,  the  transition  period,  during 
which  it  gradually  acquired  autonomy,  and  approached 
the  time  of  its  emancipation  from  foreign  control ;  then, 
the  period  of  the  patriarchate,  when  its  ecclesiastical  in- 
dependence had  been  definitively  established,  and  it  rose 
to  its  highest  power;  and  finally,  that  of  the  Holy 
Synod,  when  it  became  subordinate  to  the  State,  and 
Avhich  still  continues. 

During  the  first  period,  the  metropolitans  of  Russia 
had  their  seat  primarily  at  Kiev,  the  capital  of  the  great 
princes ;  they  were  almost  invariably  appointed,  and  sent 
thither,  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople ;  they  Avere 
generally  Greeks,  ignorant  of  the  language  and  customs 
of  the  people  over  whom  they  ruled ;  the  Church  was  sim- 
ply a  diocese,  a  province  of  the  Byzantine  patriarchate. 

The  invasion  of  the  Tatars,  and  the  consequent  re- 
moval of  the  seat  of  government  from  the  banks  of  the 
Dnieper  far  to  the  interior  of  the  countr}^  separated  the 
two  Churches,  and  isolated  them  one  from  another ;  as 
the  metropolitan  accompanied  the  prince,  the  religious 
centre  was  displaced  to  follow  the  political.  Communi- 
cation became  difficult,  often  impracticable,  through  im- 
mense wastes  peopled  with  savage  and  warring  tribes ; 
a  sense  of  independence  on  the  part  of  the  Russian 
Church  was  the  natural  result  of  rare  intercourse,  and 


154       THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

this  feeling  ■svas  increased  by  the  fi'equent  necessity 
Avhich  arose  of  lilling  the  ecclesiastical  throne,  when 
reference  to,  or  waiting  upon,  Constantinople  was  an  im- 
possibility. It  became  a  recognized  principle  that  tho 
primate  should  be  of  Russian  blood,  chosen  by  his  clergy 
or  named  by  the  prince,  and,  although  consecration  by 
the  Byzantine  patriarch  was  still  lield  to  be  essential, 
the  idea  of  a  national  establishment  was  germinating. 
True  to  its  origin  and  traditions,  the  Church  was  ever 
respectful  to  authority,  and  loyal  to  the  legitimate  sov- 
ereign. During  long  civil  wars  and  foreign  subjugation 
its  influence  ex})anded,  and  was  less  overshadowed  by 
that  of  the  State ;  it  was  favored  and  protected  by  Tar 
tar  khans,  as  Avell  as  by  native  princes.  Conciliated  by 
the  former  to  strengthen  and  consolidate  their  dominion, 
by  the  latter  to  profit  by  its  services  as  a  mediator  be- 
tween themselves,  or  as  an  intercessor  with  their  oppress- 
ors, it  came  to  be  the  only  bond  which  held  the  nation 
together — the  safeguard  and  bulwark  of  the  national  ex- 
istence. This  was  the  most  glorious  age  of  the  Eussian 
Church,  distinguished  by  unswerving  patriotism,  religious 
zeal,  and  intense  nationality ;  the  days  of  its  great  popu- 
lar heroes  and  saints,  and  the  epoch  when  its  most  cele- 
brated institutions  were  founded.  After  the  nation  had 
issued  triumphant  from  its  tribulations,  and  the  empire 
became  independent  and  strong,  the  power  of  the  Church 
dwindled  before  that  of  the  State  ;  it  passively  protested 
in  the  person  of  its  only  martjT,  St.  Philip,  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  tsar,  but  it  never  rebelled  against 
constituted  authority,  or  strove  to  check  the  growth  of 
autocratic  government. 

The  ambition  of  Boris  Godounov  led  to  a  recrudescence 
of  its  power;  he  encouraged  the  emancipation  of  the 
Church  from  foreign  control,  in  order  to  win  the  sym- 


ITS  SYNODICAL  FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT,  I55 

pathy  of  the  clergy  and  profit  by  its  influence  over  the 
people,  precisely  as  he  established,  or  consolidated,  serf- 
dom to  conciliate  the  nobility  and  landed  proprietors. 
The  creation  of  the  patriarchate  exalted  the  Church,  and 
increased  the  dignity  and  splendor  of  its  position,  but,  at 
the  same  time,  it  severed  its  connection  with  the  outer 
world  and  left  it  alone,  exposed  without  allies  abroad, 
without  the  hope  of  foreign  succor,  in  the  inevitable 
struggle  which  was  to  come  for  pre-eminence  between 
the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil  powers.  This  struggle 
was  postponed  by  the  political  occurrences  of  the  years 
immediately  succeeding.  Again  the  Church  proved  the 
saviour  of  the  national  life,  and  rose,  by  the  force  of  cir- 
cumstances, and  the  patriotic  devotion  of  its  members,  to 
almost  undisputed  supremacy  in  the  reigns  of  Michael  and 
Alexis  Romanoff,  and  during  the  patriarchate  of  Nikon. 

The  fall  of  this  mighty  prelate  meant  the  future  pre- 
dominance of  the  civil  power,  and  the  Church  submitted 
with  its  wonted  humility,  accepted  the  interregnum  or- 
dered by  Peter  the  Great,  acquiesced  in  the  abolition  of 
the  patriarchate,  and  consented  to  a  final  reorganization 
under  the  Holy  Synod. 

Its  rise  at  different  times,  during  the  extraordinary 
vicissitudes  of  its  fortunes,  to  almost  supreme  control  in 
the  body  politic,  was,  on  each  occasion,  the  consequence 
of  extraneous  and  fortuitous  circumstances,  rather  than 
the  result  of  any  ambitious  effort  of  its  own.  Its  eleva- 
tion Avas  invariably  followed,  as  the  especial  cause  dis- 
appeared, by  its  submission  to  civil  authority,  and  by 
harmonious  co-operation  with  it.  It  is,  however,  to  bo 
observed  that  this  submission  related  only  to  the  admin- 
istration of  Church  affairs,  and  never  affected  questions 
of  dogma,  nor  of  doctrine,  raised  high  above  the  author- 
ity of  the  Church  itself. 


15G       THE  RUSSIAN  CHUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

The  synodical,  or  federative  form,  of  government  is  the 
natural  and  logical  one  for  churches  of  the  Orthodox 
communion,  as  it  adapts  itself  equally  well  to  all  politi- 
cal constitutions.  In  democratic  Greece  the  Church  has 
followed  the  example  given  by  the  Church  of  autocratic 
Russia,  and  its  organization  there,  while  differing  in  de- 
tail, is  similar  in  princijile.  AVhatever  form  among  Or- 
thodox Churches  the  higher,  or  governing  power  may 
have  assumed,  it  has  never  made  any  pretence  to  be  of 
divine  origin,  but,  whether  patriarchate  or  synod,  has 
always  been,  and  been  held  to  be,  of  human  institution ;  in 
either  case  entitled  to  respect,  but  with  the  advantage,  on 
the  part  of  the  synod,  of  greater  flexibility  of  adaptation. 

In  Russia,  the  composition  of  the  synodical  council  is 
dependent  almost  entirely  on  the  will  of  the  emperor; 
nearly  all  the  members,  and  their  number  is  not  limited, 
are  appointed  by  him,  but  it  would  be  an  error  to  sup- 
pose that  he  is,  in  any  spiritual  sense,  like  the  Pope  of 
Rome,  the  head  of  the  Church.  If,  in  any  legislative 
acts,  he  is  so  termed,  it  is  only  in  his  capacity  of  admin- 
istrator of  its  affairs,  and,  as  such,  his  authority  is  re- 
stricted by  the  canons,  by  tradition,  and  by  oecumenical 
decrees.  All  questions  of  dogma  and  of  discijiline  are 
beyond  his  control ;  never  has  a  tsar,  unless  it  be  the 
demented  Paul,  claimed  any  rank  in  the  clerical  hie- 
rarchy ;  at  the  altar  he  yields  homage  to  the  priest,  in 
common  with  the  humblest  of  his  subjects ;  he  is  simply, 
as  he  is  designated  in  the  catechism,  the  administrator 
and  protector  of  the  Church. 

The  Holy  Synod  takes  precedence  over  all  the  other 
great  bodies  of  the  State ;  it  replaces  the  patriarch,  with 
all  his  rights  and  privileges ;  originally,  it  was  more  of  a 
representative  assembly,  comprising  the  different  ranks 
of  the  clergy,  and  bishops  were  in  a  numerical  minority ; 


THE  MOST  HOLY  SYNOD. 


157 


now,  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  early  Church, 
which  placed  authority  in  the  hands  of  its  bishops,  the 
episcopal  element  predominates.  The  three  metropoli- 
tans of  Kiev,  Moscow,  and  St.  Petersburg  are  entitled  to 
membership  by  right  of  their  offices,  and  the  latter  is  the 
presiding  officer ;  the  Exarch  of  Georgia  is  also  admitted 
upon  the  same  ground;  the  other  members  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor — some  for  definite  periods,  oth- 
ers to  hold  office  during  his  pleasure ;  some  in  full  and 
regular  standing,  others  as  supernumeraries  or  assist- 
ants ;  they  comprise  four  or  five  archbishops,  bishops,  or 
archimandrites,  and  two  arch-priests  of  the  secular  clergy, 
one  of  whom  usually  is  the  chaplain  and  confessor  of  the 
emperor,  the  other  the  chaplain-general  of  the  army. 
The  Synod  has  its  seat  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  is  perma- 
nently in  session.  The  emperor  is  represented  by  a 
delegate  bearing  a  title  corresponding  to  attorney-gen- 
eral (ober-procurator),  who  assists  at  the  meetings,  but 
who  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  member;  this  official 
is  always  a  layman,  frequently  a  military  officer  of  high 
rank,  and  is  the  ])ersonilication  of  the  civil  authority ;  he 
acts  as  the  intermediary  between  the  emperor  and  the 
Synod ;  all  communications  pass  by  his  hands ;  ho  presents 
to  the  Synod  all  laws  projected  by  the  government,  and 
sulimits  all  decisions  of  the  Synod  for  imperial  sanction ; 
he  ])roposes  all  measures,  directs  all  business,  and  executes 
all  decrees ;  no  act  is  valid  without  his  assent,  and  he  has 
the  right  of  veto,  if  any  action  of  the  Synod  appears  to 
him  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  State.  Every  year  he  pre- 
pares statements  of  the  condition  of  the  Church,  of  the 
clergy,  and  of  religion  generally  throughout  the  empire. 

The  functions  of  the  Synod  are  divided  among  several 
departments.  Such  of  these  as  exercise  supervision  over 
clerical  discipline,  religious  censorship,  and  all  ecclesias- 


158       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

tical  matters,  strictly  speaking,  come  under  the  imme- 
diate direction  of  members  of  the  Synod,  while  others, 
specially  charged  with  care  of  the  schools  and  of  the 
finances  of  the  Church,  are  placed  under  the  attorney- 
general.  All  business  is  transacted  in  writing,  Avith- 
oxxt  oral  discussion,  or  deliberation  in  open  assembly; 
bureaucracy  or  circumlocution,  so  generally  prevalent 
throughout  Russia,  is  carried  to  an  extreme,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  the  real  direction  of  affairs  devolves  upon 
the  various  departments,  and  the  members  of  the  Synod 
do  little  else  than  sign  what  is  put  before  them. 

For  the  nomination  of  bishops  the  Synod  submits 
three  names  to  the  emperor,  who  generally  chooses  and 
appoints  the  first  one  on  the  list ;  they  are  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  Synod,  and  each  one,  in  his  diocese,  is 
assisted  by  a  consistory  or  council,  the  members  of  which 
are  named  by  the  Synod,  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  bishop.  This  consistorial  body  acts  chiefly  as  an 
ecclesiastical  tribunal,  and  has  jurisdiction  over  all  cases 
of  clerical  discipUne,  or  those  in  which  the  clergy  are 
interested,  and  over  matters  relating  to  marriage  and 
divorce ;  its  acts  require  the  episcopal  sanction  for  their 
validity,  and  final  appeal  from  its  decisions  lies  to  the 
Synod.  The  functions  of  this  provincial  council,  within 
its  jurisdiction,  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  supreme  governing  body,  and  are,  in  like  manner, 
shared  by  several  departments ;  a  lay  secretary,  appoint- 
ed by  the  Synod,  upon  the  nomination  of  the  attorney- 
general,  and  subject  to  his  orders,  is  charged  with  duties 
kindred  to  his  own ;  the  same  bureaucratic,  centralizing 
tendency  exists  as  at  the  capital,  and  a  similar  controlling 
influence  is  exercised  by  the  various  departments. 

From  all  the  dioceses  and  provincial  consistories  con- 
stant reference  must  be  made  to  the  central  head,  wheth- 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  CHURCH  GOVERNMENT.  I59 

er  it  be  for  the  erection  of,  or  the  removal  of,  a  church 
edifice,  for  the  eraplo}Tiient  of  diocesan  funds,  for  tlie  dis- 
tribution of  charitable  contributions,  for  the  deposition 
of  a  priest,  or  his  release  from  his  vows.  The  bishop 
must  present  every  year  full  reports  upon  the  condition 
of  his  bishopric,  upon  its  schools  and  institutions,  upon 
the  number  of  communicants,  and  of  conversions  from 
other  religions  or  from  dissenting  sects ;  he  cannot  be 
absent  from  his  diocese  for  more  than  a  week  Avithout 
special  authorization. 

Tlie  prodigious  centralization  noticeable  in  the  ma- 
chinery of  Church  government  in  Eussia  is  the  inevita- 
ble result  of  the  constant,  close  relations  with  each  other 
enforced  upon  its  component  parts,  and  of  the  intimate 
connection  maintained  by  the  Church  with  the  civil  au- 
thority. This  intimacy  is  enhanced  by  the  rivalry  between 
the  regular  and  the  secular  clergy ;  ecclesiastical  honors 
and  preferments  are  monopolized  by  the  former,  and 
they  are  the  more  prone  to  subserviency  towards  the 
State  as  the  source  of  all  power  and  emolument,  while 
for  the  latter  there  is  no  independent  religious  head  at 
home,  nor  supreme  pontiff  abroad,  to  whom  they  may 
appeal,  and  they  also  turn  to  the  civil  authority  as  their 
natural,  and  only,  protection  against  episcopal  despotism. 

While  rejoicing  in  the  favor  of  the  State,  the  Church 
does  not  appreliend  thereby  serious  danger  to  its  inde- 
pendence as  a  Church ;  confident  in  the  immutability  of 
its  dogma,  which  no  authority  can  impugn,  and  in  the 
pious  devotion  of  its  adherents,  upon  which  the  govern- 
ment dare  not  trespass,  it  is  fully  alive  to  the  fact  that 
the  interference  of  the  sovereign  is  limited  by  the  un- 
written law  of  tradition,  and  that,  to  undue  encroach- 
ment, it  has  but  to  oppose  its  passive  power  of  inertia, 
and  to  rely  upon  the  fidelity  of  its  followers. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Clergy,  Black  and  White. — Monasticism  and  Monasteries. — Par- 
ish Priests. 

In  Russia,  clerical  life  is  not,  as  in  other  countries,  sim- 
ply a  Avocation  or  a  profession,  nor  do  the  clergy  there, 
as  in  France  before  the  revolution  of  1789,  form  one  of 
the  great  bodies  of  the  State  ;  it  is  a  distinct  social 
class,  set  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  world ;  a  separate 
caste,  hereditary,  and  peculiar  in  its  duties  and  privileges. 

It  is  divided  into  monks,  or  the  regular  monastic  cler- 
gy, and  popes,  or  the  secular  parish  clergy ;  the  one  is 
popularly  termed  the  hlach,  and  the  other  the  white  cler- 
gy. The  differences  in  their  garb  are  hardly  sufficient 
to  explain  these  designations,  for,  while  monies  are  al- 
ways attired  in  black,  and  wear  a  long  black  veil  hang- 
ing down  behind  from  the  cowl,  the  popes  are  not  re- 
stricted to  white,  and  often  adopt  brown,  or  other  sombre 
colors ;  one  peculiarity  is  common  to  them  both — long 
hair  and  flowing  beards. 

The  radical  distinction  between  the  two  is  marriage ; 
the  monks  take  vows  of  celibacy,  but  the  popes  must 
marry  before  they  can  have  charge  of  a  parish.  In  the 
Russian,  as  generally  in  Orthodox  Churches,  the  episco- 
pate and  all  offices  of  authority  are  reserved  for  the  un- 
married clergy,  who  are  comparatively  few  in  number, 
Avhilc  the  subordinate  and  more  laborious  })ositions  only 
fall  to  the  lot  of  the  married  clergy.  From  this  custom 
arise  diversity  of  interests,  and  a  mutual  spirit  of  rivalry 
and  antagonism,  the  more  intense  in  that  marriage,  abso- 


THE  CLERGY.— MONASTICISJI. 


161 


lutely  forbidden  to  the  one  and  equally  obligatory  upon 
the  other,  interposes  an  impassable  barrier  between  the 
two  bodies.  A  constant  struggle,  seldom  openly  avowed, 
but  none  the  less  ardent  for  that  reason,  is  going  on,  the 
chosen  few  seeking  to  maintain  their  superiority,  the  oth- 
ers, who  comprise  the  great  body  of  the  Church  militant, 
striving  to  rise  from  their  inferior  condition,  and  be  free 
from  control.  As  a  consequence  of  this  species  of  dual- 
ism in  the  Church,  there  are  influences  and  tendencies  at 
work  in  opposite  directions ;  the  black  clergy  is  the  more 
conservative,  sympathizing  with  the  principle  of  authority 
and  the  maintenance  of  ancient  customs  and  traditions, 
while  the  Avhite  is  inclined  to  liberalism,  and  is  more 
ready  to  yield  to  the  spirit  of  innovation  and  progress. 

Monasticism  has,  since  its  introduction  into  Eussia, 
been  a  prominent  feature  in  the  history,  and  in  the  civil- 
ization of  the  empire  and  of  the  people,  but  in  its  nature 
and  influence  it  has  been,  and  is,  Avidely  different  from 
the  same  institution  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  It  has  al- 
ways been  simple  and  primitive  in  its  character,  preserv- 
ing still  the  same  unity  as  at  its  origin,  Avithout  change 
or  variety  in  its  development ;  in  form,  similar  to  that 
known  in  the  West  during  the  Middle  Ages,  prior  to  the 
days  of  St.  Bernard,  never  branching  out,  nor  subdividing, 
into  many  denominations  or  orders,  each  with  a  special 
object  or  mission.  It  has  lacked  enterprise,  and  mental, 
moral,  or  spiritual  energy ;  it  has  aimed  at  a  contempla- 
tive life,  at  asceticism,  penitence,  and  the  correction  of 
the  inner  man ;  it  has  sought  retirement  for  meditation 
and  prayer ;  it  has  withdrawn  from,  and  renounced,  the 
world,  and  its  ideal  of  the  perfect  life  has  been  that  of 
the  anchorite  in  the  desert,  or  of  the  Stylite  on  his  pil- 
lar; its  communities  have  not  been  created,  as  in  the 
West,  for  union  in  the  struggle  Avith  evil,  nor  for  works 
11 


1G2       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

of  cliarit}'  and  benevolence,  nor  for  earnest  pro])agation 
of  the  faith,  and  tliey  liave  never  been  centres  of  intel- 
lectual activity.  The  names  given  to  the  monasteries 
recall  the  ancient  Thebaul ;  the  greater  of  them  are 
termed  "■  lavra"  and  "  stavropigia ;"  the  smaller  are  called 
"  skeet "  or  "  poustynia  "  (hermitages  or  deserts).  The 
catacombs  at  Kiev,  and  the  crypts  of  ancient  clmrches 
were  not  tombs  or  receptacles  for  the  dead,  but  were  the 
dwellings  of  early  saints. 

This  fondness  for  the  solitary  life  of  the  anchorite  is 
not  yet  extinct  in  Russia ;  although  the  government  for- 
bids the  creation  of  hermitages,  they  are  still  found  in 
distant,  hidden  places,  the  favorite  refuges  and  resorts  of 
the  more  fanatic  among  the  dissenting  sects. 

With  the  conception  of  monastic  life  as  it  was  under- 
stood in  Russia,  one  simple  rule  has  sufficed  for  all  the 
different  communities  which  have  been  founded.  That 
of  St.  Basil,  which  does  little  more  than  establish  the 
broad  principles  of  conventual  discipline,  and  is  gener- 
ally recognized  throughout  the  East,  was  introduced  into 
Russia  by  the  Greeks  with  the  Christian  religion,  and  has 
remained  in  force,  ever  since,  in  all  the  monastic  institu- 
tions of  the  country.  As  a  consequence  of  the  uniformity 
of  organization,  no  separate  orders  have  ever  existed,  and 
the  Church  has  been  spared  the  intestine  struggle  of  pow- 
erful rival  communities  within  its  bosom.  The  larger 
institutions  may  have  sent  forth  branches,  or  colonies, 
affiliated  with  the  parent  head,  but  these  ramifications 
have  disappeared,  and  the  various  establishments,  under 
one  common  rule,  are  independent,  each  of  the  other. 

Monastic  life  has  been  deficient  in  variety  of  develop- 
ment, in  concentration  and  unity  of  purpose,  and  in 
diversity  of  results ;  it  has  exerted  less  influence  upon 
the  progress  of  society,  but  it  has  also  been  the  cause  of 


MONASTICISM. 


163 


less  embarrassment  to  both  the  Church  and  the  State. 
Its  action,  though  less  multiform  and  varied  than  else- 
where in  Europe,  has  been  dee])ly  felt.  In  Russia,  as  in 
Gaul  and  in  Germany,  monks  have  been  the  pioneers  of 
civilization,  as  well  as  of  Christianity.  They  penetrated 
the  vast  sohtudes  of  the  North  and  the  East,  converted 
barbarians  and  cleared  forests,  spread  the  Gospel  among 
savage  tribes  and  improved  their  material  condition,  and 
population  followed  after  them  as  they  advanced.  Sym- 
patliizing  and  mingling  freely  with  the  people,  they  have 
had  profound  influence  in  forming  national  character,  and 
have  identified  religion  with  national  life.  In  the  centu- 
ries of  wars  with  Tatars,  Lithuanians,  Poles,  and  Swedes, 
monasteries  have  been  the  ramparts  and  bulwarks  of  the 
national  existence,  which  OAves  both  its  origin  and  its 
preservation  to  the  Church ;  in  times  of  anarchy  and  sub- 
jugation its  establishments  have  been  the  only  havens  of 
refuge  for  letters  and  learning  brought  from  B3'zantium; 
their  only  ark  of  safety  in  the  deluge  of  barbaric  invasion. 

The  history  of  the  empire  can  be  read  in  the  annals  of 
its  great  lavra.  Those  of  the  Petcherski,  the  convent  of 
catacoml)s  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  embrace  the  na- 
tion's youth,  the  age  of  Kiev,  its  ancient  patrimony; 
while  those  of  the  Troitsa  cover  its  growth  to  maturity, 
the  age  of  ^loscow,  its  natural  capital. 

The  great  monasteries  were,  in  reality,  fortified  cities 
of  vast  extent  and  dense  population,  grouping  numerous 
churches  around  their  shrines ;  in  the  Troitsa  there  were 
fourteen,  in  the  Solovetsk  convent  seven,  in  the  Simonov 
and  Donskoi  five  and  six.  Each  name  revives  the  mem- 
ory of  great  deeds  and  heroic  struggles,  and  appeals  to 
both  religious  and  patriotic  sentiment.  The  walls  of  the 
Troitsa  exhausted  the  strength  of  the  victorious  Poles, 
and  preserved  the  nation  s  life  when  Moscow  and  the 


164       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 

empire  were  prostrate ;  Napoleon's  armies  stojiped  but  a 
day's  march  from  its  gates,  and  resistance  to  Lis  invasion 
was  encouraged  by  Avhat  the  people  deemed  divine  inter- 
position to  save  this  sacred  fortress ;  it  gave  shelter  to 
tsars  against  domestic  treachery,  as  well  as  against 
foreign  foes.  The  Novospasski  and  Donslcoi  convents 
checked  the  Tatars  at  the  entrance  to  Moscow.  Solo- 
vetsk  defied  the  Swedes. 

Popular  reverence  for  these  holy  citadels  is  enhanced 
by  the  natural  beauties  of  their  situations,  the  untold 
treasures  and  precious  rehcs  which  they  guard,  and  the 
hallowed  spots  Avhich  they  commemorate.  Tlie  Petcher- 
ski  was  the  cradle  of  Russian  monastic  life,  the  home  of 
Nestor  and  chroniclers  of  old ;  it  is  the  shrine  of  innu- 
merable saints,  whose  hves  were  passed  in  the  mysterious 
caves  where  their  bones  are  yet  objects  of  pious  venera- 
tion and  worship ;  from  the  hillside  of  the  Dnieper  it 
looks  out  upon  a  broad  expanse  of  meadow  and  stream 
as  boundless  as  the  ocean.  The  red-brick  towers  of  the 
Troitsa  overhang  picturesque  ravines ;  its  vaults  are  piled 
with  incalculable  riches,  and  its  churches  are  sanctified  by 
most  sacred  Icons.  Iverski,  upon  an  island  of  the  beau- 
tiful Lake  Yaldai,  is  shrouded  in  magnificent  forests. 
Voskresensk,  the  "  New  Jerusalem,"  is  planned  to  repro- 
duce the  most  revered  sanctuaries  of  Palestine.  Solo- 
vetsk,  renowned  for  the  austere  piety  of  its  brotherhood, 
is  surrounded  by  scenery  peculiarly  impressive  from  its 
solitary  and  desolate  grandeur,  upon  the  bleak  shores  of 
the  White  Sea.  Localities,  fortunate  in  the  presence  and 
neighborhood  of  these  holy  shrines,  are  held  by  the  peo- 
ple in  especial  veneration,  and  Peter  the  Great,  in  found- 
ing the  city  which  bears  his  name,  endeavored  to  invest 
it  with  similar  title  to  popular  regard  by  transporting 
thither,  from  A^adimir,  the  relics  of  the  great  hero  and 


DECLINE  IN  THE  MONASTIC  SPIRIT. 


165 


saint  Alexander  IS^evski,  and  enshrining  them  in  a  vast 
convent,  raised  to  ranlv  with  the  famous  lavra  of  the 
Petcherski  and  the  Troitsa. 

At  the  great  festivals  of  the  Church  these  religious 
centres  are  still  thronged  by  pilgrims,  but  their  perma- 
nent inmates  and  regular  votaries  are  now  but  few,  and 
may  be  counted  by  scores,  instead  of  by  hundreds.  The 
spirit  of  monasticism  is  less  fervent  than  in  former  days, 
and  the  geographical  distribution  of  existing  monasteries 
marks  the  change.  They  are  more  numerous  in  the  an- 
cient cities,  around  the  old  capitals,  Kiev  and  Moscoav, 
and  within  the  former  republics,  Novgorod  and  Pskov ; 
less  so  in  provinces  recently  colonized  and  peopled.  Their 
numbers  actually  correspond  to  the  antiquity,  rather  than 
to  the  density,  of  the  population.  In  the  empire  there 
are  in  all  about  550 ;  in  every  bishopric  there  is  at  least 
one,  the  superior  of  which  is,  by  right  of  his  office,  mem- 
ber of  the  diocesan  council ;  they  are  served  by  about 
5900  monks  and  4900  nuns  in  full  standing,  with  4100 
lay  brethren,  and  13,000  lay  sisters  and  novices. 

The  causes  of  the  noticeable  decline  in  the  monastic 
spirit,  wliile  religion  retains  finn  hold  upon  the  people, 
are  both  moral  and  political  in  their  nature.  Monasti- 
cism in  Pussia  has  never  felt  the  renewing:  and  vivif  vinsr 
influences  springing  from  works  of  active  charity  and 
benevolence,  while  the  more  fervently  devout  and  i)ious- 
ly  inclined  of  the  population  have  been  drawn  away  from 
the  national  Church,  and  from  its  institutions,  by  dissent- 
ing sects.  The  ready  favor  with  which  schismatic  doc- 
trines were  received  by  the  monks,  as,  for  instance,  at 
Solovctsk,  brougl)t  tliem  into  direct  antagonism  with  the 
authorities  of  the  Church,  who,  determined  to  stami)  out 
Dissent  at  any  cost,  subjected  all  religious  institutions  to 
strict  supervision  and  severe  regulations.  The  persistent 


IQQ       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

opposition  manifested  by  the  monasteries  to  the  reforms 
of  Peter  the  Great  aroused  his  anger,  and  arrayed  all 
the  power  of  the  State  against  them.  Every  restriction, 
short  of  absolute  suppression,  was  imposed ;  their  prop- 
erty was  sequestered,  and  their  spiritual  influence  under- 
mined by  government  interference,  until  the  lower  class- 
es only  held  them  in  reverence ;  their  number,  and  that 
of  their  inmates,  was  arbitrarily  reduced ;  they  were 
treated  as  institutions  of  the  State,  and  in  the  choice  of 
their  superiors,  as  well  as  in  all  the  detail  of  their  ad- 
ministration, they  were  subjected  to  govei'nment  control, 
exercised  through  the  Synod  ;  entrance  to  the  monastic 
body  was  made  difficult  by  stringent  regulations,  and  the 
life  made  irksome  by  severe  and  vexatious  discipline,  cal- 
culated to  repel  and  disgust  the  better  class  of  those  who 
felt  a  vocation  for  religious  seclusion.  By  a  singular 
contradiction,  all  high  ecclesiastical  dignities  were  re- 
served for  the  members  of  the  monastic  body,  thus  sys- 
tematically degraded  in  general  estimation.  The  effect 
of  this  policy,  so  fraught  with  danger  to  the  standing 
and  repute  of  the  upper  clergy,  was  counteracted  by  the 
practice  of  conferring  these  positions  of  responsibility 
only  upon  the  elect,  whose  career  in  the  seminaries  and 
academies  had  been  marked  by  ability.  To  graduates 
of  brilliant  promise  every  conceivable  inducement  to 
take  the  vows  was  offered  ;  the  limit  of  age  was  reduced 
from  thirty  years  to  twenty-five,  and  rapid  promotion 
was  assured.  A  superior  class  among  the  monks  was 
thus  formed,  for  Avhom  monastic  life  Avas  but  a  means 
for  an  end,  an  easy  and  certain  path  to  power  and  influ- 
ence ;  while  for  the  great  majority  it  was  a  dreary,  monot- 
onous routine  of  ceremonial  religious  rites,  under  rigid 
discii)line  strictly  enforced. 
A  few  only  of  the  monasteries,  and  those  are  of  mi- 


MOXASTERIES. 


167 


nor  importance,  are  dependent  solely  upon  their  ovm  re- 
sources ;  by  far  the  greater  number,  including  the  more 
celebrated,  receive  an  allowance  from  the  government  as 
an  indemnity  for  their  sequestered  estates. 

First  among  these  are  the  great  lavra — the  Petcher- 
ski  at  Kiev,  the  Troitsa  at  Moscow,  Alexander  Nevski  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  to  these  three  there  has  recently  been 
added  Potchaief,  in  Yolhymnia,  the  chief  monastery  of 
the  Uniates.  Their  appellation  "  lavra  "  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  "laura,"  a  street  or  open  place,  Avhich  des- 
ignation was  apphed  in  the  East  to  communities  of  an- 
chorites who  lived  in  union,  but  occupied  single  and  de- 
tached cells,  in  contradistinction  to  coenobia,  in  which 
the  inmates  lived  together  under  a  common  roof.'  Each 
of  these  establishments  depends  upon  the  neighboring 
metropolitan,  who  makes  it  his  official  residence. 

Xext  in  ranli  are  the  "  stavropigia," '  seven  or  eight  in 
number,  comprising  several  of  the  large  monasteries  in 
and  around  Moscow ;  they  are  exempted  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  they  are  sit- 
uated; formerly,  they  depended  immediately  ujwn  the 
patriarch,  who,  at  their  foundation,  took  them  under  his 
special  charge,  and,  at  their  consecration,  sent  the  large 
double  cross  which  surmounts  them ;  from  this  circum- 
stance is  derived  their  name.  Now  they  depend  directly 
upon  the  Holy  Synod,  as  succeeding  to  the  rights  of  the 
patriarch.  The  remainder  of  the  monasteries  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  according  to  their  importance. 

The  number  of  monks  or  nuns  in  each  is  fixed  by  stat- 
ute; the  lavi'a  have  about  a  hundred  in  full  standing, 
and  as  many  more  lay  brethren  and  novices ;  the  Stav- 


'  Ncandcr,  vol.  iii.,  p.  334. 

'  From  arai'puc,  a  cross,  and  ntiyviiv,  to  place. 


168       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

pigia  and  the  establishments  of  the  first  class  liave  each 
thii'tj'-thi-ee,  the  others  still  fewer;  the  regulations  in 
this  respect  are  relaxed  according  to  the  necessities  of 
each  locality ;  rural  convents  are  allowed  more  inmates 
than  those  in  cities,  but  the  tendency  of  the  reformatory 
measures  now  contemplated  is,  from  motives  of  economy, 
to  limit  the  number  to  the  actual  requirements  of  the 
service  in  each  case,  and  to  bring  the  monks  sti'ictly  un- 
der the  system  of  life  in  common,  in  order,  by  diminish- 
ing the  expenses,  to  increase  the  funds  that  may  be  ap- 
propriated to  the  episcopal  revenues,  to  the  support  of 
the  poorer  clergy,  and  to  the  maintenance  of  schools  and 
hospitals. 

The  monasteries,  as  a  body,  are  possessed  of  enormous 
wealth  in  immobilized  property ;  they  are  rich  in  pre- 
cious stones,  pearls,  and  jewels,  in  vases  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver, in  furniture,  ornaments,  and  objects  of  art  of  great 
value,  the  accumulations  of  centuries.  These  treasures, 
in  many  cases  of  fabulous  amount,  are  unproductive  and 
inalienable,  sacred,  as  belonging  to  the  altar.  Some  of 
these  institutions  have  large  incomes  of  their  own,  de- 
rived from  lands  formerly  uncultivated,  which,  su])posed 
to  be  of  no  value,  escaped  sequestration  when  their  vil- 
lages and  serfs  were  taken  by  the  State ;  from  fisheries, 
and  mills  on  streams  formerly  neglected,  and  from  gifts 
and  bequests  sanctioned  by  special  authorization.  These 
revenues,  where  they  exist,  together  with  the  government 
allowances,  constitute  but  a  portion  of  their  actual  re- 
sources. The  sacred  relics  and  miraculous  pictures,  which 
no  convent  is  without,  are  objects  of  devout  worship  and 
superstitious  veneration  ;  they  attract  immense  crowds  of 
devotees,  the  aggregate  of  whose  offerings  is  very  large. 
At  the  Petcherski  and  the  Troitsa  pilgrims  are  reckoned 
by  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  none  are  so  poor  but  leave 


MONASTERIES;  THEIR  WEALTH.— NUNNERIES.  169 

their  mite  upon  the  altar.  The  holy  images  and  wonder- 
working Madonnas  are  carried  to  the  homes  of  the  sick 
and  infirm ;  Our  Lady  of  Iberia,  most  revered  of  all,  has 
horses  and  carriages  kept  for  her  service,  and,  it  is  said, 
brings  in  to  her  chapel  at  Moscow  $50,000  a  year.  At 
stated  periods,  these  sacred  images  are  borne  through  the 
neighboring  villages  in  solemn  processions,  and  reap  rich 
harvests  from  the  contributions  of  the  faithful,  who  eager- 
ly vie  for  the  honor  of  their  visit.  As,  in  the  olden  time, 
great  princes  and  lords  were  wont  to  don  the  monkish 
garb  at  the  approach  of  death,  so  now  all  Russians  wish 
to  be  buried  near  the  tomb  of  some  one  of  the  saints  of 
the  Church,  and  the  privilege  of  reposing  in  ground  hal- 
lowed by  their  near  presence  is  made  a  prolific  source  of 
income  to  the  convents  or  churches  which  possess  some 
holy  man's  remains. 

For  women  there  are  fewer  retreats  than  for  men,  and, 
by  published  statistics,  there  would  ap])ear  to  be  fewer 
nuns  than  monks ;  the  official  lists,  however,  do  not  give 
the  total  number  of  females  Avithin  convent  walls,  as 
they  include  only  those  who,  over  forty  j'ears  of  age, 
have  taken  the  veil.  In  point  of  fact,  these  institutions 
have  more  inmates  than  the  monasteries ;  they  are  open 
to  novices,  and  to  lay  sisters  of  any  age ;  many  young 
girls  and  women  seek  shelter  within  them,  and  remain 
there  permanently,  without  consummating  the  act  which 
would  separate  them  definitively  from  the  world,  free, 
at  any  moment,  to  re-enter  society,  but  generally  con- 
tent to  pass  their  days  in  voluntary  seclusion.  An  en- 
tirely different  conception  of  monastic  institutions,  and 
of  monastic  life,  whether  for  monks  or  nuns,  prevails 
in  Russia  from  that  in  Catholic  countries.  Charity,  be- 
nevolence, or  missionary  enterprise  are  not  the  essen- 
tial features,  although  they  may  be  incident  to  the  life. 


170       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Among  the  monks,  for  a  few,  it  is  the  commencement  of 
an  ambitious  career  that  may  lead  to  power  and  station ; 
for  some  others,  more  humble,  yet  devoutly  inclined,  it 
affords  oi)portunity  for  meditation  and  j)rayer,  and  for 
growth  in  personal  piety ;  for  the  many,  it  means  free- 
dom from  military  service  and  taxation,  and  escape  from 
bodily  punishment ;  for  all,  both  monks  and  nuns,  it  is  a 
sure  refuge  from  poverty  and  want,  a  shelter  for  solitary 
or  improvident  old  age. 

The  secular,  married,  or  white  clergy  form  the  sacer- 
dotal body ;  until  recently  it  has  been,  by  laAV  as  well  as 
by  practice,  a  close,  hereditary  corporation,  a  tribe,  like 
that  of  Levi,  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the  altar.  This 
peculiarity  of  its  condition  arose  by  degrees,  as  a  neces- 
sary consequence  of  serfdom  and  of  the  ancient  constitu- 
tion of  society.  The  serf,  bound  to  the  soil,  was  prohib- 
ited from  entering  the  Church,  as,  by  so  doing,  he  defraud- 
ed his  master  of  his  toil;  and  the  noble  proprietor  was 
debarred,  under  penalty  of  the  loss  of  his  estates  and  of 
the  j^rivileges  of  his  ranli ;  the  clergy  could,  therefore, 
be  recruited  only  from  among  those  of  its  own  class,  and 
a  separate  clerical  body  was  thus  gradually'  formed,  bound 
to  the  altar,  as  the  peasant  was  bound  to  the  land.  Sons 
of  priests  were  com])elled  to  attend  the  parish  schools, 
and  parish  offices  were  filled  by  graduates  of  these  schools. 
Custom,  and  Church  law,  had  made  marriage  a  condition 
of  ordination,  and  as  neither  sons  nor  daughters  of  popes 
could  marry  out  of  the  class  to  which  they  belonged,  in- 
termarriage of  one  Avith  the  other  became  obligatory, 
and  this  clerical  class  was  thus  further  transformed,  by 
degrees,  into  a  distinct  and  special  caste.  The  necessity 
for  the  existence  of  this  peculiar  order  of  things  disap- 
peared with  the  causes  which  gave  rise  to  it.  In  1861, 
serfdom  was  abolished ;  three  years  later,  the  ranks  of  the 


THE  SECULAR,  OR  WHITE  CLERGY.  I7I 

clergy  were  thrown  open  to  all,  and  children  of  priests 
were  freely  admitted  to  other  careers.  "While  in  theory, 
and  before  the  law,  these  distinctions  of  class  and  caste 
have  been  abrogated,  practically  they  still  exist  as  a 
marked  characteristic  of  Eussian  society,  and  their  ]jer- 
sistence  springs  from  the  difficulty  of  rapidly  effecting 
radical  changes  among  a  people  imbued,  above  all  others, 
with  regard  for  ancient  usages ;  the  long-continued  Levit- 
ical  organization  of  the  parish  clergy  created  habits  of 
life  and  thought  not  to  be  easily  eradicated,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  clerical  body  still  remains  a  class 
apart. 

The  inheritance  of  priestly  rank  tended  to  make  the 
charges  and  the  emoluments  of  the  office  also  hereditary, 
and  to  establish,  for  the  priest,  a  quasi  vested  right  of  pro- 
prietorship in  the  parish  hving.  The  pope  endeavored  to 
transmit  his  curacy  to  his  children,  not  only  as  a  legacy 
to  a  son,  but  also,  Avhen  he  had  no  son  to  succeed  him 
in  his  charge,  as  a  marriage  portion  for  a  daugliter ;  and 
these  pretensions,  very  generally  realized  in  practice, 
came  near  securing  the  force  of  law.  They  were  the 
more  leniently  considered  by  the  authorities  of  both  the 
State  and  the  Church,  from  the  necessity,  devolving  upon 
them  at  the  death  of  a  pope,  of  making  provision  for  his 
family,  and  from  their  natural  wish  to  im])ose  this  bur- 
den upon  his  successor ;  the  situation  was  also  further 
complicated  by  tlie  circumstance  that,  usually,  the  par- 
sonage and  dwellings  belonged,  not  to  the  parish,  or  to 
the  village,  which  gave  only  the  land  necessary  for  the 
pope's  support,  but  to  the  incumbent  himself,  and  the 
new-comer  was  obliged  to  arrange  witli  tlie  heirs  to  ob- 
tain possession ;  as  marriage  was  obligatory  upon  him, 
the  simplest  mode  of  settlement  was  for  him  to  marry 
into  the  family ;  he  could  not  espouse  the  widow,  to 


172       TIIK  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

whom,  as  well  as  to  the  pope,  a  second  marriage  is  for- 
bidden ;  so  he  took  the  daughter,  whose  dowry  was  the 
curac}'-,  and  pensioned  off  the  rest  of  tlie  relations  when 
he  entered  upon  his  charge.  This  custom,  sanctioned  by 
the  usage  of  centuries,  was  rendered  unnecessary  by  the 
laws  of  1864,  but  it  still  prevails,  and  is  not  likely  to 
disappear  until  proper  provision  is  made  for  the  families 
of  deceased  popes. 

The  principle  of  heredity  extended  also  to  the  subor- 
dinate offices  of  the  parish  church.  After  the  priest  and 
the  deacon,  who  are  received  into  holy  orders,  comes  the 
great  body  of  the  minor  white  clergy,  subdivided  into 
many  classes.  In  recent  synodical  reports  the  total 
number  of  popes  is  given  as  37,300,  of  whom  from  14:00 
to  1500  are  proto-popes  or  arch-priests,  the  highest  digni- 
ty to  which  a  member  of  the  white  clergy  may  attain ; 
they  are  the  superiors  in  parishes  having  two  priests ; 
they  are  often  appointed  inspectors  over  the  parish  cler- 
gy, and  are  qualified  for  a  seat  in  the  Synod.  Of  deacons 
there  are  11,500 ;  they  assist  the  pope  at  the  altar,  and 
may,  at  some  ceremonies,  as  at  funerals,  rejilace  him. 
The  next,  or  third  class,  which  is  very  numerous,  nearly 
600,000,  comprises  clerks,  beadles, vergers,  singers,  sextons, 
bell-ringers,  and  all  the  minor  officers ;  each  of  tliese  sub- 
divisions is  separate  from  the  others ;  its  members  inter- 
marry, and  its  functions  are  practically  hereditary. 
These  tlu'ee  orders  of  popes,  deacons,  and  the  minor 
clergy  are,  and  always  remain,  entirely  distinct  one 
from  the  other,  and  do  not  form  successive  grades  in 
the  parish  hierarchy. 

K(kicational  institutions  for  the  secular  clergy  are  of 
three  kinds — district  or  parish  schools,  seminaries,  and 
academies.  Graduates  of  the  first-named,  in  which  in- 
struction is  very  elementary,  are  fitted  only  for  the  sub- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  WHITE  CLERGY.— POPES.  173 

ordinate  offices ;  the  deacons,  and  the  great  majority  of 
popes,  issue  from  the  second ;  the  more  distinguished 
members  of  the  priesthood  pass  through  the  third, 
whicli  correspond  to  the  theological  faculties  of  Euro- 
pean universities.  Merit  is  by  no  means  ignored  in  con- 
ferring ecclesiastical  appointments,  and  the  student  who 
fails  in  his  examination  for  the  priesthood  cannot  hope 
to  rise  above  the  diaconate.  The  course  of  study  at  the 
seminaries  is  varied  and  comprehensive ;  it  includes  an- 
cient, or  liturgical,  Slavonic,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and' 
one  modern  language,  mathematical  and  physical  sci- 
ences, history,  philosophy,  and  theology.  The  defect  of 
the  system  is  not  in  the  extent  of  the  field  mapped  out ; 
its  deficiencies,  which  are  many  and  real,  arise  from  the 
short  time  given  to  each  department,  and  the  consequent 
superficial  nature  of  the  knowledge  imparted,  from  the 
use  of  antiquated  text-books,  from  the  absence  of  a  cath- 
olic and  liberal  spirit  in  the  method  of  instruction,  caused 
by  Russian  isolation  and  want  of  intercourse  with  the 
Western  world,  and  by  neglect  of  modern  progress  in 
ideas  and  sciences ;  they  are  aggravated  by  the  youth 
and  inexperience  of  the  instructors,  who  are  frequently 
changed,  and  seldom  adopt  teaching  as  a  profession,  but 
accept  a  tutor  s  post  temporarily,  merely  as  a  step  in 
their  career  of  ofiicial  preferment. 

The  Russian  pope,  notwithstanding  the  imperfect  nat- 
ure of  his  education,  is,  intellectually,  much  superior  to 
the  community  in  which  he  lives,  and  if  the  influence 
which  he  exerts  be  less  than  might  be  expected  of  him, 
this  must  be  attributed  to  the  depressing  and  demoraliz- 
ing conditions  of  his  life,  to  his  want  of  means,  and  to 
his  social  ostracism. 

He  is  wretchedly  paid :  in  cities,  and  where  the  pres- 
ence of  clergy  of  other  denominations  renders  it  desiru- 


17i       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ble,  from  motives  of  policy,  that  his  position  should  be 
decent,  and  more  befitting  his  sacred  office,  the  salary- 
may  reach  300  roubles '  (at  present  about  $150),  but  on 
the  average,  his  annual  stipend  docs  not  exceed  100  rou- 
bles ($50),  a  miserable  pittance  which  cannot  support 
him  and  his  family  in  respectability.  He  becomes, 
therefore,  dependent  upon,  and  is  at  the  mercy  of,  his 
parishioners ;  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land  allotted  for 
his  support  the  labor  of  his  own  hands  cannot  suffice, 
and  he  must  rely  upon  the  gratuitous  and  grudgingly- 
given  assistance  of  the  peasants,  who  can,  themselves, 
barely  keep  body  and  soul  together;  he  must  eke  out 
his  meagre  existence  by  gifts  and  offerings  of  his  poor 
and  scanty  flock ;  these  contributions  might  afford  a  de- 
cent livelihood,  were  not  the  larger  part  reclaimed  by 
the  S}Tiod  or  the  diocese,  and  the  slender  portion  re- 
maining still  to  be  shared  by  him  with  the  minor  clergy 
of  his  parish.  Necessity  compels  him  to  wring,  or  cajole, 
all  that  is  possible  from  his  congregation ;  his  daily  bread 
depends  upon  it,  and  every  ceremony  he  performs,  every 
sacrament  he  confers,  is  bargained  for  and  haggled  over 
as  it  can  only  be  done  in  Eussia;  bridal-couples  have 
left  the  altar  unmarried,  and  bodies  have  been  buried 
secretly,  because  the  pope  and  the  peasant  could  not  agree 
upon  a  price ;  the  pious  and  the  indifferent,  the  foreign 
Jew  and  the  native  Christian,  the  Orthodox  believer  and 
the  Dissenter,  are  all  under  contribution,  and  the  pope's 
most  engrossing  occupation  is  to  watch  greedily  over 
every  member  of  his  jmrish,  to  see  that  none  evade  the 
payment  of  dues  he  may  rightfully  exact,  or  beg.  The 
task  is  arduous,  for  the  occasions  are  many,  and  of  diverse 


'  The  mint  value  of  the  rouble  is  65.8  cents,  but  in  recent  years,  by 
depreciation,  it  has  fallen  to  about  50  cents. 


POPES;  THEIK  SOCIAL  CONDITION. 


1Y5 


nature.  Eeligion  enters  very  largely  into  Eussian  daily 
life :  at  every  important  event,  at  every  festival  or  anni- 
versary, when  starting  upon,  or  returning  from,  a  jour- 
ney, at  the  inception,  or  completion,  of  every  undertak- 
ing, a  blessing  is  invoked,  or  thanks  are  rendered ;  and 
these  domestic  incidents,  as  well  as  ceremonies  performed 
within  the  church  doors,  are  made  remunerative  to  the 
parish  officers.  At  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Twelfth-day 
the  pope  and  his  clergy,  in  their  sacerdotal  robes,  loudly 
chanting  the  hymn  "  Gospodi pomilui (Lord,  have  mer- 
cy upon  us !),  go  their  rounds,  from  house  to  house,  to 
bless,  and  sprinkle  with  holy  water,  the  homes  of  their  pa- 
rishioners ;  they  sometimes  meet  with  but  scant  courtesy, 
and  are  dismissed  from  the  gate  with  alms,  as  trouble- 
some beggars,  but,  generally,  they  are  welcomed  with  the 
free  hospitality  that  characterizes  the  Eussian  peo])le,  and 
are  expected  to  do  justice  to  the  viands  and  hquors  set 
before  them ;  to  refuse  to  drink  would  be  an  affront,  and 
often,  before  the  day  is  over,  these  holy  men  are  in  most 
lamentable  condition.  The  peasant,  for  whom  drunken- 
ness is  a  venial  sin,  is  more  amused  than  scandalized  by 
the  exhibition ;  but,  when  the  time  for  feasting  has  gone 
by,  the  gluttony  and  intemperance  he  merrily  encouraged 
are  made  a  reproach.  "  Am  I  a  pope,  that  I  should  dine 
twice  ?"  is  a  popular  saying,  significant  of  the  light  es- 
teem in  which  the  people  hold  their  pastors ;  they  deem 
it  even  a  sign  of  ill-luck  to  meet  a  pope  by  the  wayside, 
while  the  better  classes  do  not  hesitate  to  show  openly 
their  want  of  regard.  The  priest's  ecclesiastical  superi- 
ors are  not  more  considerate ;  he  is  seldom  admitted  to 
his  bishop's  presence,  and  he  dreads  tlie  pastoral  visita- 
tion, lie  is  treated  with  contumely,  deprived  of  all  in- 
dependence, and  drilled  to  passive  submission  ;  his  mental 
culture  ceases,  perforce,  when  he  leaves  the  seminary,  and 


17G       'flll'^  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

lie  is  as  incapable  of  responding  to  the  religious  wants  of 
the  devout  as  he  is  of  withstanding  the  progress  of  infi- 
delity. Despised  by,  and  isolated  from,  the  community 
upon  which  he  is  dependent,  his  whole  life  is  a  ceaseless, 
"wretched  struggle  for  material  existence  ;  all  devotional 
feeling  is  crushed  out  of  his  soul,  and  religion,  for  him,  is 
debased  to  mere  form  and  ceremonial,  by  which  to  earn 
a  precarious  subsistence. 

The  obligation  of  marriage  weighs  heavily  upon  him. 
"While  great  advantages  may  result  from  it  in  many 
points  of  view,  and  in  communities  where,  as  in  Protes- 
tant countries,  the  minister,  properly  remunerated,  finds, 
in  an  intelligent,  educated  wife,  a  helpmate  and  co-work- 
er, in  Russia  it  is  far  otherwise.  Even  at  the  present 
day,  the  married  2>ope  may  not  aspire  to  the  higher  dig- 
nities of  the  Church ;  he  cannot  obtain  a  curacy  without 
a  wife ;  frequently  she  brings  it  to  him  as  her  dowry, 
and  he  loses  it  at  her  death.  She  feels,  and  makes  him 
feel,  her  superiority  as  the  moneyed  partner  in  the  asso- 
ciation ;  she  is  generally  without  education,  and,  in  her 
povert}' -stricken  household,  is  overwhelmed  by  domestic 
cares ;  she  can  neither  afford  him  intellectual  companion- 
ship, nor  is  she  competent  to  share,  or  to  encourage  him, 
in  pious  and  charitable  work.  Children  come  to  increase 
his  responsibilities  and  anxieties.  Only  recently  have 
other  careers  than  the  priesthood  been  opened  for  them ; 
and,  while  the}^  are  eager  to  embrace  them,  and  escape 
from  the  sordid  cares  and  degradations  they  have  wit- 
nessed in  their  homes,  they  seldom  find  the  opportunity  ; 
although  they  are  raised,  by  education,  above  the  laborer 
and  the  peasant,  poverty,  social  prejudices,  and  want  of 
infiuential  relations  check  their  aspirations ;  but  too  fre- 
quently they  help  to  swell  the  multitude  of  disappoint- 
ed, discontented,  and  ambitious  youths  who,  hostile  to 


REFORMS  AMONG  THE  PARISH  CLERGY,  177 

tlie  existing  order  of  things,  fretting  under  restrictions 
imposed  by  custom  and  habit,  partially  educated,  and 
their  minds  filled  with  crude  revolutionary  ideas,  are  a 
serious  danger  in  the  body  politic. 

The  welfare  of  the  State  and  the  good  of  the  Church, 
alike,  imperatively  demand  amelioration  in  the  condition 
of  the  parish  clergy.  For  t^yenty  and  more  3'ears  past 
the  question  has  been  under  examination,  and  important 
reforms  have  been  commenced.  The  necessities  of  the 
government  have  restricted  the  appropriations  for  the 
clerical  budget,  but  it  has  grown  from  one  million  of 
roubles  in  1833  to  ten  millions  in  1872,  and  the  remu- 
neration of  the  clergy  has  been  raised.  The  number  of 
parishes  and  of  priests  has  been  reduced,  with,  in  each 
case,  the  same  object  in  view — by  diminishing  the  number 
of  the  recipients,  to  increase  the  share  of  each ;  but  in  this 
direction  the  measure  of  reform,  limited  by  the  immense 
extent  of  the  empire  and  the  sparseness  of  its  population, 
has  been  pushed  too  far. 

There  are  now  in  Kussia  about  43,000  churches  and 
chapels,  but  while  the  cities,  especially  the  more  ancient, 
are  abundantly  supplied  with  religious  edifices  and  an 
officiating  clergy,  the  rural  parishes  are  already  too  large. 
Of  priests,  in  regular  standing,  there  are  less  than  38,000, 
too  few  for  the  pastoral  Avork.  In  Siberia,  and  in  the 
frontier  governments,  the  want  of  priests  has  been  se- 
verely felt,  and  it  has  recently  been  necessary  to  ordain 
Seminarists,  who  had  not  completed  their  studies,  and  to 
recruit  the  clergy  from  students  of  lay  institutions. 
AVhen,  as  in  these  provinces,  great  distances  separate  the 
people  from  their  places  of  worship,  and  the  ministers 
of  the  altar  are  few,  apathy  and  indiff'erence  are  en- 
gendered, or  schismatic  and  dissenting  doctrines  flourish 
without  contradiction,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  Church 
12 


178       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

is  imperilled.  The  only  reduction  that  may  be  yet  safe- 
ly made  is  among  the  multitudes  of  the  minor  clergy, 
the  most  ignorant  and  the  most  useless,  whose  services 
could,  for  the  most  part,  be  dispensed  with  without  dan- 
ger, and  jierhaps  to  advantage. 

With  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  material  con- 
dition of  the  parish  clerg}"^,  there  is  also  a  strong  inclina- 
tion to  raise  their  social  position.  By  marriage  they  are 
debarred  from  the  episcopal  dignity.  Church  discipline 
ordains  that  a  bishop  may  not  be  married  in  the  flesh ; 
according  to  Timothy,  he  must  be  "  the  husband  of  one 
wife,"  and  as,  by  a  subtle  interpretation  of  the  text,  he 
has  already  one  spouse,  the  Church,  he  can  have  no  oth- 
er, and  the  episcopate  remains  the  monopoly  of  the  black 
clergy ;  but  positions  of  trust  and  eminence  are  being 
brought  Avithin  the  reach  of  married  priests,  especially 
of  those  who  are  connected  with  the  higher  clerical  edu- 
cation. A  pope  has  recently  been  appointed  rector  of 
the  ecclesiastical  academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  an  impor- 
tant post,  hitherto  always  held  by  a  monk.  Measures  of 
this  nature,  persistently  pursued,  would  inaugurate  a  new 
era  of  reform,  and,  while  instilling  into  the  Church  a 
more  catholic  and  Hberal  spirit,  would  open,  for  the  white 
clergy,  a  vast  and  hitherto  closed  sphere  of  usefulness. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


The  Raskol. — Early  Heresies. — Attempted  Reforms  in  Church. — Ni- 
kon.—Peter  the  Great.— The  Popovtsi  and  the  Bezpopovtsi.— Polit- 
ical Aspect  of  the  Raskol. 

The  Orthodox  Russian  Church,  for  upwards  of  two 
hundred  years,  has  been  disturbed  by  numerous  myste- 
rious sects,  almost  "wholly  unknown  abroad,  and  but  par- 
tially understood  at  home.  The  religious  movement 
from  which  they  derive  their  being,  generally  designated 
as  the  "  Easkol," '  or  the  "  Schism,"  is  j)eculiarly  Russian 
and  national  in  its  origin  and  character.  It  has  never 
extended^  Ibeyond  tEe  limits  of  tlie  empire,  and,  within 
them,  it  is  restricted  chiefly  to  the  more  ancient  jirov- 
inces,  Avhereihe  population  is  essentially  Muscovite  ;  it 
is  of  most  diverse  nature,  absolutely  without  unity  in  its 
development,  subdivided  into  a  thousand  different  branch- 
es, separate  and  distinct  one  from  the  other,  having  only 
for  their  common  object  opposition  to  the  established 
Church.  It  is  exclusively  a  popular  movement ;  it  had 
its  rise,  and  still  exists,  in  the  peasant's  hut,  and  among 
the  common  multitude,  without  sympathy  from,  or  affili- 
ation with,  the  educated  or  upper  classes  of  society,  and 
it  indicates  a  mental  and  social  condition  of  the  people 
which  has  no  parallel  in  other  lands. 

Both  German  Protestantism  and  Russian  Raskol  pre- 
serve the  stamp  of  their  similar  religious  origin,  as  issu- 
ing each  from  an  established  State  Church,  but  here  the 


'  IlasJcol  is  a  Russian  word  meaning  the  cleft,  the  rupture. 


ISO      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AXD  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

resemblance  ceases,  until  it  is  again  apparent  in  analo- 
gous results. 

In  the  "West,  Dissent  has  generally  proceeded  from  a 
spirit  of  investigation,  doubt,  and  inquiry ;  from  a  desire 
for  liberty,  and  from  impatience  of  spiritual  control ;  but 
in  Russia  it  has  sprung  from  diametrically  opposite 
causes — the  obstinacy  of  ignorance,  persistent  reverence 
for  the  past,  and  obedience  to  authority. 

In  the  one  case,  the  human  soul  has  sought  freedom 
from  the  trammels  of  form  and  ceremony  to  satisfy  its 
aspirations  towards  an  ideal,  higher  life ;  in  the  other, 
superstitious  regard  for  ancient  usages,  devotion  to  ex- 
ternal rites,  have  been  the  predominant  influences.  From 
a  common  starting-point  the  two  movements  have  pro- 
gressed in  steadily  diverging  directions,  but,  while  an- 
tagonistic in  the  principle  of  their  development,  they 
have  arrived  at  similar  results,  inasmuch  as  the  Easkol, 
rejecting  the  authority  of  the  Church,  by  which  alone 
unity  of  faith  could  be  preserved,  has  recognized  the 
right  of  free  interpretation  of  mysterious,  though  immu- 
table, dogmas,  and  accepted  all  the  vagaries  of  individ- 
ual opinions  regarding  them,  thereby  creating  infinite 
variety  of  belief. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  during  the  constant  wars  between 
the  appanaged  princes,  heresies  and  religious  controver- 
sies were  rife  in  Eussia,  as  elsewhere.  Each  petty  sover- 
eign, as  he  arrived  at  power,  endeavored  to  enlist  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Church  in  his  own  behalf;  three  metro- 
pohtans,  in  the  twelfth  century,  claimed,  at  the  same 
time,  the  ecclesiastical  throne  at  Iviev ;  and  the  disturb- 
ances within  the  Church,  from  their  rival  pretensions, 
permitted  the  growth  of  heretical  doctrines,  Avliich  re- 
lated, however,  not  to  fundamental  dogmas,  but  only  to 
external  observances.   Nestor,  bishop  of  Eostov,  accused 


EARLY  HERESIES.— THE  STRIGOLNIKL 


181 


of  favoring  them,  vra.s  summoned  to  Constantinople  for 
his  justification,  about  1102  ;  and,  during  his  absence, 
Leon,  a  neighboring  prelate,  usurped  charge  of  his  dio- 
cese, lie  openly  professed  and  encouraged  the  practices 
laid  to  the  charge  of  Nestor,  and  which,  while  at  vari- 
ance with  canonical  rule,  aimed  at  stricter  observance  of 
Church  discipline.  He  preached  the  necessity  of  abstain- 
ing from  meat  at  the  festivals  of  the  Nativity  and  the 
Epiphany,  whenever  they  should  fall  upon  a  "Wednes- 
day or  a  Friday.  Nestor  was  acquitted  and  returned, 
but  the  heresy  had  meanwhile  assumed  such  proportions 
as  to  necessitate  further  reference  to  the  patriarch,  be- 
fore whom  Leon  was  cited  to  appear,  and  by  whom  he 
was  tried  and  condemned.  This  authoritative  decision 
Avas  set  at  naught  by  Constantine  II.,  Metropolitan  of 
Kiev,  a  native  Eussian,  who  shared  the  opinions  advo- 
cated by  Leon,  and  supported  them  by  his  authority. 

This  religious  movement,  the  first  of  which  any  record 
exists  within  the  Kussian  Chuix'h,  is,  in  its  ceremonial 
character,  typical  of  the  dissensions  which  arose  in  sub- 
sequent centuries ;  it  was  swallowed  up  and  forgotten  in 
the  civil  commotions  distracting  the  country,  but,  in  con- 
nection with  it,  the  devotional  disposition  of  the  people 
was  manifested  in  the  popular  belief  that  to  divine  dis- 
pleasure, aroused  by  the  defection  of  the  head  of  the 
Church,  was  to  be  attributed  the  sack  and  ruin  of  Kiev, 
the  holy  city,  in  11G8,  by  a  coaUtion  of  the  appanaged 
princes,  under  Andrew  Bogoloubsky  of  Souzdal.' 

In  1.370  tlie  sect  of  the  Strigolniki "  ajipeared.  They 
took  their  name  from  the  craft  of  their  founder,  one 


'  Karamsin,  vol.  ii.,  p.  .395;  Mouravicf.  p.  ,30. 

'  Karamsin,  vol.  v.,  p.  130;  Jlouravief,  p.  CO,  aud  note,  p.  379.  Stri- 
golnik  i3  derived  from  streetch,  to  shear. 


182       THE  EUSSLVN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Karp,  a  sheep  or  wool  shearer,  a  man  of  the  people,  Avith 
whom  was  joined  Nikita,  a  deacon  of  the  Church.  The 
movement  was  a  popular  protest  against  the  greed,  cov- 
etousness,  and  corrujrtion  of  the  clergy,  and  it  spread  rap- 
idly among  the  lower  classes  at  Pskov  and  Novgorod. 
Its  founders  commenced  by  railing  at,  and  finally  reject- 
ing, the  clergy  altogether,  as  being  a  human  institution, 
rendered  despicable  by  the  ignorance,  degradation,  and 
covetousness  of  its  members ;  they  alleged,  by  author- 
ity of  St.  Paul,  that  any  Christian  brother  Avas  empoAV- 
ered  to  teach  the  Gospel,  and,  for  priests,  they  substituted 
leaders  chosen  freely  among  themselves.  They  denied 
the  rite  of  episcopal  ordination,  and  that  the  imposition 
of  hands  could  endoAV  the  clergy  Avith  any  divine  poAver 
of  imparting  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  this  poAver 
they  claimed  for  CA^ery  believer,  as  an  essential  privilege 
of  Church  membership,  by  Avhich  all  brethren  were  invest- 
ed with  the  rights  of  spiritual  priesthood.  They  renounced 
auricular  confession  and  priestly  absolution,  as  being  con- 
trary to  God's  commands  to  confess  one's  sins  to  Him, 
and  to  boAA"  before  Him  alone ;  they  rejected  the  priest's 
office  in  baptism  and  communion,  and  administered  these 
sacraments  one  to  another.  To  chant  psalms  over  the 
dead,  and  to  offer  up  prayers  and  oblations  for  their 
souls,  they  declared  to  be  an  innovation  of  the  devil,  prac- 
tised by  his  agents,  the  priests,  to  satisfy  their  greed  and 
covetousness,  by  the  fees  they  earned.  Nikita,  degraded 
from  his  office,  was  throAvn  into  prison,  and  Kar]o,  victim 
of  the  fickleness  of  popular  favor,  Avas,  at  the  instigation 
of  his  enemies,  the  priests,  drowned  by  a  mob  in  the 
riA'er  Yolkov.  The  sect  Avas  suppressed,  so  far  as  out- 
Avard  manifestations  Avent,  but  the  leaven  of  its  teachings 
remained  fermenting  in  the  popular  mind. 
A  century  later,  about  1470,  a  heresy,  knoAvn  as  that  of 


THE  SECT  OF  THE  JUDAIZERS. 


183 


the  "  Jedovstchina," '  or  the  sect  of  the  Judaizers,  was 
discovered  at  Xovgorod.  It  was  introduced  from  Lithu- 
ania by  a  learned  Jew,  Zachariah,  a  man  profoundly- 
versed  in  the  cabalistic  arts,  generally  believed,  in  those 
days,  to  be  the  peculiar  inheritance  of  his  race,  and  the 
source  of  Solomon's  fabled  wisdom.  Taught  in  secret, 
it  had  already  acquired  formidable  proportions  before  it 
was  detected.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been  grafted 
upon  the  foniier  errors  of  the  Strigolniki,  which,  not  yet 
entirely  forgotten,  still  remained  latent  in  the  mysteri- 
ous undercurrents  of  popular  belief ;  there  was,  however, 
no  apparent  affiliation  or  resemblance,  save  as  regards  a 
cojnmon  hatred  of  the  priesthood  and  opposition  to  cler- 
ical authority.  This  new  sect  rejected  entirely  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Christian  rehgion ;  it  denied  tlic  divinity, 
and  even  the  existence  of  the  Saviour,  proclaiming  that 
the  Messiah  was  yet  to  come.  Apart  from  circumcision, 
it  inculcated  the  tenets  of  the  Jewish  faith ;  promulgated 
in  mystery,  it  was  readily  received  b}'  a  credulous,  igno- 
rant people,  chafing  under  the  onerous  exactions  of  a 
grasjMng,  covetous  priesthood,  Avhich  it  despised  more 
heartily  than  it  feared.  The  adherents  of  this  sect  were 
scrupulously  observant  of  aU  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Orthodox  Church,  and,  by  their  crafty  dissimula- 
tion, for  a  long  period  they  escaped  discovery.  Among 
Zachariah's  early  proselytes  were  two  priests  of  Novgo- 
rod, Alexis  and  Dionysius,  who,  while  secretly  spreading 
error,  maintained  unblemished  reputations  as  faithful 
ministers  of  the  Church ;  by  their  apparent  zeal  and  de- 
votion they  gained  the  confidence  of  the  great  prince 
Ivan  III.,  and  were  summoned  by  him  to  Moscow ; 


'  Karamsin,  vol.  vi.,  p.  242;  Mouravicf,  p.  89,  and  note,  p.  383.  See 
above,  p.  43.    From  Jiidovstvo— Judaism. 


1S4       THE  RUSSIAN  CIIURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

there  he  installed  them  as  archpriests  or  cleans,  one  in 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  the  other  in  the  Church 
of  the  Archangel.  At  the  capital  their  efforts  Avere,  for 
a  while,  crowned  with  success ;  many  in  high  position, 
among  them  Feodor  Kouritsin,  secretary  of  the  prince, 
Helena,  his  daughter-in-law,  and  Zosimus,  an  archiman- 
drite, became  their  disciples.  The  latter,  by  the  influence 
of  Alexis  over  the  tsar,  was,  by  him,  arbitrarily  appointed 
metropolitan  of  Moscow  in  1191.  Gennadius,  Bishop  of 
Novgorod,  was  the  first  whose  suspicions  were  aroused ; 
his  representations  Avere  unheeded  by  Gerontius,  then 
metropolitan,  an  aged  and  indolent  prelate ;  but  subse- 
quent and  more  earnest  appeals  to  the  tsar,  as  defender  of 
the  faith,  induced  him  to  convene  a  council  of  the  Church 
in  15U5.  Notwithstanding  the  protection  and  connivance 
of  Zosimos,  who  presided  as  metropolitan,  this  assembly, 
moved  by  the  vehement  denunciations  of  Gennadius, 
aided  by  the  hegumen  of  the  Volokamsk  monastery,  St. 
Joseph,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  enlightened  men  of 
his  day,  anathematized  these  schismatic  and  dangerous 
doctrines. 

Alexis,  meanwhile,  had  died,  but  Dionysius,  with  the 
tsar's  secretary,  and  many  of  their  adherents  in  high  ec- 
clesiastic and  civil  office,  were  condemned  and  handed 
over  to  the  secular  arm  for  punishment  at  the  stake; 
Zosimos  was  deposed,  but  his  deposition  was  attributed 
to  intemperance  and  incapacity,  in  order  to  avert  from 
the  Church  the  scandal  of  punishing  the  apostasy  of  its 
head.  The  heresy  was  stilled,  if  not  thoroughly  erad- 
icated. 

Popular  sympathy  with  these  early  religious  move- 
ments seems  to  have  been  excited,  both  by  the  dislike 
and  contempt  felt  for  an  ignorant,  greedy,  and  rapacious 
priesthood,  and  by  a  preference,  already  manifested,  for 


FORMALISM  AMONG  THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  CLERGY.  1S5 

ancient  and  primitive  forms  of  worship,  as  more  akin  to, 
and  in  hannony  with,  the  earliest,  and  consequently  the 
most  reliable,  revelations  of  divine  truth.  Already,  in 
these  obscure  dissensions  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Easkol — that  is  to  say,  scrupu- 
lous regard  for  the  letter  of  the  law,  formaUsm — begins 
to  assert  itself.  An  annalist  of  Novgorod,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  mournfully  complains  that  some  of  the  clergy 
have  impiously  changed  the  ancient  invocation  of,  "  Lord ! 
have  pity  upon  us !"  for  "  O  Lord !  have  pity  upon  us !" 

The  manner  in  which  the  Eussian  people  were  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  suddenly,  by  order,  as  it  were, 
made  rehgion  appear  to  them  as  consisting  in  form,  in 
words,  rites,  and  ceremonies.  There  had  been  among  them 
no  gradual  assimilation  of  the  truth ;  the}^  had  received  no 
previous  preparation  by  long-continued  teaching,  as  in 
the  "West ;  they  stiU  retained  their  former  customs,  were 
still  imbued  with  their  ancient  superstitions,  and  were  too 
ignorant  to  f uUy  comprehend,  or  appreciate,  the  pure  and 
elevated  morality  of  the  Christian  faith.  Their  rulers  com- 
manded, and  they  obeyed,  submissively  transferring  their 
allegiance  from  the  idol  to  the  cross,  worshipping  at  the 
altar  in  the  same  spirit  as  before  their  pagan  shrines. 
The  clergy  were  hardly  more  enlightened  than  the  peo- 
ple ;  for  them,  also,  the  letter  re})laced  the  spirit,  and 
they  deemed  their  functions  limited  to  the  exact  repeti- 
tion of  external  observances. 

By  the  ignorance  and  carelessness  of  scribes  and  copy- 
ists, the  hturgy,  and  the  Church-books  were  soon  fiUed 
with  errors,  which,  hallowed  by  constant  use,  passed  into 
general  acceptation,  and  were  held  in  superstitious  ven- 
eration by  both  the  minister  and  the  worshipper.  The 
strange  interpolations,  the  contradictions,  the  capricious 
readings  of  the  text,  seemed  the  more  worthy  of  rever- 


18G       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ence  as  tlicy  "were  the  moi'e  obscure.  They  were  sacred 
formulas,  full  of  hidden,  mysterious  meanings,  and,  from 
being  capable  of  divers  interjiretations,  Avere  the  source 
of  many  singular  theories  and  eccentric  teachings,  based 
on  Avhat  was  received  as  revealed  of  God. 

The  necessity  of  careful  revision  and  correction  of  the 
books,  the  ritual,  and  the  service  of  the  Church  was,  at 
an  early  period,  felt  to  be  imperative  by  many  having 
authority  in  both  Church  and  State.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  Vassili  TV.  appealed  to  Constantinople  for  com- 
])etent  assistance.  Maximus,  a  Greek  tlieologian  of  vast 
erudition  and  earnest  piety,  was  sent  from  Mount  Athos, 
and  assumed  direction  of  the  work.  lie  was  favorably 
received  by  the  tsar,  and  sup])orted  by  the  more  enlight- 
ened prelates  of  the  Church,  but  his  efforts  were  rendered 
futile  by  the  unreasoning  fanaticism  of  the  people  and 
the  bigotry  of  most  of  the  clergy,  envious  of  honors 
shown  to  a  foreigner.  The  metropolitan  Daniel,  an  am- 
bitious and  intolerant  Churchman,  was  a  bitter  opponent 
of  the  contemplated  changes,  and  his  hostility  was  in- 
creased by  jealousy  of  Maximus's  influence  Avith  the  mon- 
arch ;  this  mild  and  pious  monk,  an  uncompromising  de- 
fender of  the  laws  and  canons  of  the  Church,  soon  feU  a 
victim  to  court  and  clerical  intrigue,  and  was  condemned 
by  a  council  for  daring  to  tamper  Avith  the  ancient  and 
sacred  formulas  and  rites. 

Ivan  IV.,  the  "  terrible  "  tsar,  Avas  deeply  read  in  the- 
ological learning,  and  in  early  life  evinced  great  solici- 
tude for  the  Church.  He  resumed  the  task,  commenced 
by  his  father,  of  correcting  and  purifying  the  books  and 
ritual,  and  convened,  for  the  purpose,  the  council  knoAA^n 
as  that  of  the  Hundred  Chapters,  in  1551.  Its  decisions, 
of  Avhich  no  authentic  record  remains,  a])pear  to  have 
been  tainted  by  the  prejudices  and  the  ignorance  of  the 


CORRECTIONS  IN  THE  CHURCH  BOOKS. 


187 


age ;  they  sanctified  by  tlieir  authority  the  superstitious 
practices  existing,  which,  thus  approved,  took  deeper  root 
among  the  people,  while  the  errors  in  the  books  remain- 
ing unaltered  acquired  additional  confirmation.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  printing-press  at  the  same  period  served 
to  disseminate  more  widely  the  books  and  missals  in  their 
ancient  form,  and  this  was  generally  accepted  as  defini- 
tively the  true  and  canonical  version. 

It  was  reserved  for  l^ikon,  in  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth centurj",  to  accomplish  a  fundamental  reform. 
This  extraordinaiy  man  was  Avell  fitted  for  the  task. 
His  learning  was,  for  the  age  and  the  country,  varied 
and  profound,  his  genius  vast  and  enterprising,  his  piety 
and  devotion  to  the  Church  sincere,  his  zeal  and  energy 
unbounded,  and  his  determination  inflexible.  He  pos- 
sessed the  entire  confidence  of  his  sovereign,  and  wield- 
ed over  the  State  a  power  and  influence  commensurate 
Avith  that  he  exercised  over  the  Church.  At  his  command 
Greek  and  Slavonic  manuscripts  were  collected  and  col- 
lated, monks  were  summoned  from  Byzantium  and  from 
the  holy  sanctuaries  of  Palestine,  and  the  work  of  expurga- 
tion and  correction  was  vigorously  ])ursucd.  The  rites  and 
ceremonies  were  restored  in  their  primitive  purity,  and 
invested  with  all  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  the  Oriental 
Church.  The  liturgy  and  missals,  freed  from  inter])ola- 
tions  and  erroneous  readings,  were  approved  by  a  coun- 
cil, and  the  use  of  the  amended  version  forcibly  imposed 
throughout  the  empire.  These  radical  measures,  received 
with  stupefaction  and  amazement,  were  at  first  apparent- 
ly successful,  but  soon  aroused  a  storm  of  popular  indig- 
nation and  revolt ;  resistance  was  organized  and  encour- 
aged by  a  large  portion  of  the  clergy,  especially  by  those 
of  the  lower  ranks,  who  came  in  more  immediate  contact 
with  the  people;  they  denounced  the  alterations  as  a 


188      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

nc\v-fanglc(l  religion,  akin  to  Eoraanism  or  Lutheranism, 
and  as  a  deadly  attack  upon  tlie  ancient  Orthodox  faith. 
The  Church  appealed  to  the  State  to  enforce  its  edicts, 
and  persecution  increased  fanaticism.  Ten  years  later 
Nikon  fell  from  his  high  estate,  and,  although  the  coun- 
cil which  condemned  him  ratified  the  reforms  he  had  in- 
augurated, his  deposition  seemed,  to  the  people,  a  full 
justification  for  their  opposition.  The  sanction  and  ap- 
proval of  the  Eastern  patriarchs  served  only  to  increase 
and  intensify  the  popular  feeling,  by  arousing  the  general 
hatred  of  foreign  intervention,  and  added  to  the  bitter 
contest  the  element  of  national  jealousy  and  prejudice. 
"What  Avas,  at  first,  merely  an  outbreak  of  religious  dis- 
content assumed  by  degrees  the  aspect  of  a  political  rev- 
olution. Dissent  rapidly  developed  into  schism ;  it  be- 
came the  Raskol,  or  the  Eupture,  and,  once  firmly  estab- 
lished, was  a  power  no  longer  to  be  summarily  dealt  with. 

In  all  religious  history  no  movement  so  serious  and 
lasting  has  ever  issued  from  such  futile  and  trivial  causes. 
The  way  of  making  the  sign  of  the  cross,  its  form,  wheth- 
er processions  should  march  towards  the  East  or  towards 
the  "West,  an  additional  letter  in  the  name  Jesus,  the 
repetition  of  Ilalleluia  twice  or  three  times,  the  number 
of  loaves  upon  the  Holy  Table,  constituted  the  principal 
points  of  the  controversy.  Servile  respect  for  the  letter 
of  the  law,  for  the  form  only,  was  the  very  essence  of  its 
origin ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that,  for  the  old  Mus- 
covite, Orthodoxy,  Christianity,  Eeligion  itself  was  but 
ceremony  and  symbol,  as  embodiments  of  the  fundamen- 
tal dogmas  of  the  faith. 

The  Dissenters,  hitherto  known  as  the  Staroobriadtsi,' 
or  Old  Ritualists,  assumed  the  name  of  Staroveri,"  or  Old 

'  From  starii,  old,  and  obriad,  ceremonial. 
'  From  atarii,  old,  and  vera,  truth. 


UXDERLYIXG  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  EASKOL.  189 

Believers ;  that  is,  true  believers,  and,  by  a  singular  con- 
tradiction, founded  their  claim  to  this  designation  upon 
the  alleged  antiquity  of  their  practices,  stubbornly  ignor- 
ing the  fact  that  the  innovations,  against  which  they  re- 
belled, in  reality  restored  the  ancient  worship  in  its  prim- 
itive purity,  while  they  Avere  the  innovators. 

The  principle  underlying  the  Easkol  is  essentially  re- 
ahstic  and  niatei'ialistic,  pushed  to  its  extreme  Umits. 
Notwithstanding  the  extravagance  of  its  deductions  and 
the  moral  barrenness  of  its  results,  it  is,  in  the  singleness 
of  purpose  and  fanatical  sincerity  of  its  adherents,  enti- 
tled to  respect,  if  not  to  sympathy.  Eeverence  for  the 
letter  of  the  law  is,  for  the  Old  Believer,  a  consequence  of 
his  regard  for  its  spirit ;  in  his  mind  the  two  are  insepa- 
rably united;  the  form  and  the  essence  are  one;  both 
necessary  elements  of  faith,  both  equally  of  divine  ori- 
gin, essential  parts  of  a  complete  and  perfect  whole,  re- 
vealed by  God  to  man,  as  the  only  way  of  salvation ; 
nothing  in  it  is  trivial,  nothing  superfluous ;  all  is  pro- 
found, mysterious,  holv ;  one  jot  or  one  tittle  may  not 
pass  from  the  law,  and  the  words  of  St.  John,  set  as  a 
seal  to  close  the  Apocalypse,  are,  for  him,  a  real  and  aw- 
ful curse. 

In  this  scrupulous  regard  for  form  the  Baskol  is  in  di- 
rect opposition  to  Protestantism,  impatient  of  all  fetters 
and  restraint ;  it  is  allied  to  it  in  the  free  interpretation 
it  alloAvs  to  the  text  of  the  "Word  and  in  the  many  expla- 
nations it  pei-mits  of  the  symbols  of  the  faith.  It  seeks 
constantly  a  hidden,  allegorical  signification,  not  only  in 
the  Expressions  used,  but  also  in  the  events  narrated  b}'' 
the  sacred  writers ;  for  instance,  the  story  of  Lazarus 
has  been  explained  as  a  parable,  and  not  a  miracle  pcr- 
formed  by  the  Saviour;  Lazarus  was  the  human  soul, 
his  death  the  state  of  sin ;  Martha  and  Mary  Avere,  one 


190        THE  KUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  ItUSSLVN  DISSENT. 

the  body,  the  other  the  soul ;  the  grave  was  the  cares  of 
life,  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus  the  conversion  of  the 
soul.  Christ's  entrance  into  Jerusalem  was  not  an  inci- 
dent in  his  career,  but  was  a  typical  descri]ition  of  the  en- 
trance of  the  Holy  Spirit  into  tlie  heart  of  man.  From  this 
freedom  of  interpretation,  indulged  m  by  a  superstitious, 
ignorant,  and  imaginative  people,  has  arisen  division  into 
innmnerable  sects,  with  almost  infinite  variations  of  be- 
lief, as  extraordinary  and  fantastic  as  they  are  numerous. 

The  strength  and  sacredness  of  family  tics,  together 
with  the  respect  for  ancient  usages,  at  all  times  charac- 
teristic of  the  Muscovite  race,  have  intensified  their  at- 
tachment to  parental  teachings  and  to  doctrines  inherit- 
ed from  their  ancestors.  "  This  was  tlie  religion  of  our 
fathers,"  they  replied  to  remonstrances  and  menaces; 
"  punish  us,  exile  us,  if  you  will,  but  leave  us  free  to  wor- 
ship as  our  fathers  did." 

Nikon's  changes  attacked  directly  this  reverential  re- 
gard for  what  they  deemed  the  past ;  the  child  remem- 
bered its  mother's  teachings,  and  refused  to  surrender 
the  belief  she  relied  upon ;  the  peasant  knew  nothing  of 
alterations  or  corruptions  introduced  centuries  ago.  An- 
cient usages,  for  him,  were  the  usages  of  his  forefathers, 
and  the  traditions  of  the  village  elders ;  he  had  heard 
vaguely  of  Romanism  as  an  impious  heresy,  of  his  breth- 
ren in  Poland  seduced  and  forced  by  Catholic  influence 
to  a  mongrel  belief,  hateful  in  his  eyes,  and  he  clung  the 
closer  to  his  father's  creed.  Both  people  and  clergy  were 
suspicious  of  every  importation  from  abroad,  whether  it 
came  from  "Western  Europe,  from  the  shores  of  the  Bos- 
pliorus,  or  even  from  ancient  Kiev,  where  priests  studied 
"  that  thrice-accursed  language,  Latin ;"  they  held  it  a 
mortal  sin  to  call  God  "  Deus,"  or  the  Father  "  Pa- 
ter ;"  his  only  name  was  their  own  Slavonic  "  Bogh."  A 


POLITICAL  ASPECT  OF  THE  RASKOL.  IQl 

letter  written  by  a  RaskolnLk,  during  the  reign  of  Cath- 
erine II.,  relates  "  that  in  those  days  a  violent  persecu- 
tion arose  against  us,  pious  Christians,  dwelling  jieaee- 
ably  among  Little  Russian  perverts  who  eat  pigeons  and 
hares,  and  soil  their  mouths  with  the  thrice-accursed 
plants  coffee  and  tobacco ;  they  have  dragged  some  of  us 
into  their  errors,  but  these  were  among  us,  though  not 
of  us ;  they  were  led  by  Satan  himself — Satan,  son  of 
Beelzebub,  offspring  of  the  Sequent;  they  do  not  even 
think  it  a  sin  to  call  God  Deus,  and  his  Father,  who  got 
him.  Pater." '  The  Easliolniks,  who  called  themselves 
"  spiritual,"  or  "  true  "  Christians,  deemed  themselves  to 
be  the  only  Orthodox  behevers,  the  elect,  chosen  vessels 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  faith ;  and  classed  all  for- 
eigners as  heretics  sure  of  damnation.  The  Raskol  was 
the  expression  of  national  and  popular  prejudices,  as  well 
as  that  of  earnest  religious  enthusiasm. 

Not  long  after  Nikon,  Peter  tlie  Great  appeared,  the 
chief  cause  of  the  schism,  the  head  and  front  of  tlie  of- 
fending. 

It  is  difficult,  at  the  present  day,  to  realize  the  impres- 
sion this  monarch  made  upon  his  subjects.  It  was  more 
than  wonder  and  amazement ;  they  were  scandalized  by 
his  acts.  He  trampled  under  foot  their  most  cherished 
customs  and  traditions ;  o])enly  and  brutally  assailed  an- 
cient and  venerable  institutions,  held  in  tenderest  re- 
spect ;  meddled  with  private  affairs,  and  invaded  the 
sanctity  of  domestic  life ;  enforced  regulations  which 
shocked  their  national  prejudices  and  religious  belief ; 
revolutionized  the  form  of  government;  degraded  the 
dignity  of  his  kingly  office,  and  dared  even  raise  a  sacri- 
legious hand  upon  the  holy  Church. 


'  "Le  Kaskol,"  p.  50. 


192       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

In  the  new  Eussia  wliicli  he  created  the  bewildered 
Muscovite  could  no  longer  recognize  his  native  land ; 
strange  names  were  dinned  in  his  ears,  foreign  habits 
and  habiliments  offended  his  gaze ;  the  calendar  and  the 
alphabet  were  altered,  saints'  days  and  holy  days  were 
shifted ;  men's  chins  Avere  shaven,  women  appeared  un- 
veiled in  the  streets  ;  Moscow  became  Babjdon ;  old  Rus- 
sia was  shaken  as  by  an  earthquake,  and  chaos  seemed 
come  again.  The  memory  of  Kikon's  innovations  was 
revived ;  Peter  walked  in  his  footsteps,  and  was,  by 
popular  indignation,  accused  of  being  his  adulterous  off- 
spring. 

The  civil  revolution  inaugurated  by  the  tsar  gave 
fresh  vigor  to  the  discontent  aroused  by  the  old  patri- 
arch's attempt  to  reform  the  Church ;  Old  Russians,  op- 
posed to  civic  and  social  changes,  sympathized  with  Old 
Ritualists,  intolerant  of  clerical  innovation.  ISTational 
prejudices  were  stimulated  by  religious  fanaticism,  and 
rehgious  hostility  was  excited  by  respect  for  ancient  cus- 
toms and  institutions. 

The  comjilicated  machinery  of  a  modern  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  irksome  to  a  primitive  peo])le,  strongly  at- 
tached to  simple  and  long-inherited  usages ;  it  was  vex- 
atious and  repugnant  to  their  habits.  They  rebelled 
against  heavy  imposts,  made  necessary  by  the  new  re- 
quirements of  the  State ;  against  novel  duties  and  obliga- 
tions imposed  upon  them ;  against  recruitment  and  en- 
forced military  service.  They  were  impatient  of  restric- 
tions upon  personal  freedom,  of  passports,  and  rules  for 
dress ;  they  were  conscientiously  opposed  to  regulations 
offending  their  religious  scruples,  to  the  census,  to  the 
registration  of  births  and  deaths,  to  the  capitation  tax, 
or  tax  "  on  souls  "  ("  podouchenoi'  oklad  ") ;  "  making  them 
pay,"  as  they  said, "  for  their  immortal  souls,  which  God 


REFORMS  OF  NIKON  AND  PETER  THE  GREAT,  I93 


had  given ;"  and  they  invoked  the  punishment  of  David 
for  numbering  the  people  of  IsraeL 

The  inflexible  determination  of  the  tsar  was  met  with 
equally  persistent  opposition  from  these  enthusiasts. 
They  were  astounded  by  his  conduct,  and,  in  their  amaze- 
ment, began  to  question  his  identity  and  to  deny  his  au- 
thority. Fabulous  stories  were  secretly  circulated,  some 
to  the  effect  that  he  was  the  son  of  Nikon ;  others  that 
the  true  "  white  tsar,"  Peter,  had  perished  at  sea ;  and 
that  a  Jew  of  the  accursed  race,  a  son  of  Satan,  had 
usurped  the  throne,  slain  the  imperial  family,  and  mar- 
ried a  German  adventuress,  who  brought  with  her  into 
Eussia  myriads  of  her  countrymen.  He  was  the  Anti- 
christ, whose  coming  had  been  foretold  by  the  prophets, 
and  his  reign  was  the  reign  of  Satan. 

In  the  presumptuous  efforts  of  Nikon  Old  Behevers 
had  seen  portents  of  impending  evil ;  and  in  the  impious 
acts  of  Peter,  levelling  the  venerable  institutions  of  the 
past,  insulting  rehgion  and  morality,  they  realized  the 
fulfilment  of  the  prophetic  vision  of  St.  John ;  the  last 
days  liad  come,  and  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand. 
The  tsar's  abolition  of  the  patriarchate,  the  restrictions 
he  imposed  upon  the  Church,  his  attacks  upon  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  clergy,  the  war  he  waged  upon 
ancient  customs,  his  persecution  of  true  Orthodoxy,  his 
fondness  for  the  hated  heretical  foreigner,  his  wonder- 
ful triumphs  after  repeated  and  crushing  defeats,  the 
irregularities  and  wild  excesses  of  his  private  hfe,  even 
his  gigantic  stature,  his  strength,  and  his  striking  per- 
sonal appearance,  designated  him  as  the  Beast  of  the 
Apocalypse.  Fanatical  ingenuity  found  ample  confinna- 
tion  in  the  prophecies  for  this  popular  belief.  He  aban- 
doned the  national  and  sacred  title  of  tsar  for  the  infidel 
appellation  of  imperator,  and  as  therein,  by  the  suppres- 
13 


194      THE  RUSSUN  CHURCH  and  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

sion  of  the  second  letter,  they  deciphered  the  apocalyptic 
number  GGG,  they  said  he  concealed  his  accursed  name 
under  the  letter  M.'  The  council  at  Moscow,  which,  while 
condemning  Nikon,  had  anathematized  the  Raskol,  was 
convoked  in  ICGG ;  from  this  number,  by  dropping  the 
thousand,  in  accordance  with  the  old  Russian  custom  of 
reckoning  dates,  they  had  GGG ;  and  as  this  was  the  num- 
ber of  the  "  beast,"  they  read  the  date  of  the  council  as 
marking  the  commencement  of  Satan's  reign.  They 
found  in  the  word  Russia  (Russa  or  Roussa)  an  anagram 
of  Assur,  or  Assour  of  the  Bible,  and  averred  that  the 
curses  of  the  prophets  against  the  Assyrian  cities  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon  Avere  aimed  at  their  own  unhappy 
land.  "With  their  country  thus  given  over  to  the  powers 
of  hell,  and  the  devil  sitting  on  the  throne,  surrounded 
by  his  imps,  in  the  persons  of  the  tsar's  ministers  and 
favorites,  the  Raskolniks  felt  it  to  be  a  religious  duty  to 
reject  every  innovation  introduced,  and  every  change 
made,  under  this  Satanic  rule,  suffering  with  patient  en- 
durance, even  unto  death,  rather  than  yield  compliance 
to  unrighteous  behests.  They  carried  their  resistance 
into  all  the  detail  of  daily  life ;  as  matters  of  conscience, 
they  eschewed  the  use  of  tobacco,  for  "  the  things  which 
come  out  of  him,  those  are  they  that  defile  the  man" 
(Mark  vii.  15) ;  of  sugar,  as  it  is  refined  with  blood,  and, 
b}''  the  Scriptures,  man  may  not  eat  of  the  blood  of 
beasts ;  of  tea  and  coffee,  as  of  foreign  production ;  of 
the  potato,  as  being  the  fruit  with  which  the  serpent 
tempted  Eve.  They  objected  to  the  paving  of  the 
streets,  as  a  foreign  invention.  They  submitted  to 
double  taxation,  deprivation  of  civil  rights,  and  to  exile 

'  The  Slav  letters  of  the  alphabet  were,  like  the  Greek,  used  for  fig- 
ures; and  iraperator,  without  the  m,  figured  thus:  i=10,  p=:80,  e=5, 
r=100,  a=l,  t=300,  o=70,  r=100  ;  total,  CC6. 


THE  RASKOL  SOCIALLY  AND  POLITICALLY.  195 

even,  rather  than  change  their  dress  or  crop  their  hair. 
They  gloried  in  the  red  badge  they  were  compelled  to 
wear,  as  it  pointed  them  out  to  the  sympathy  and  com- 
miseration of  the  people  as  the  suffering,  yet  uncomplain- 
ing, defenders  of  national  traditions  and  the  ancient  faith. 
Long  hair  and  beards  are  still,  as  then,  their  distinguish- 
ing feature;  and  popular  obstinacy,  in  this  particular, 
proved  stronger  than  the  will  of  the  autocrat.  The  more 
exalted  and  fanatic  among  them,  called  Stranniki,'  or  Fu- 
gitives, threw  off  all  allegiance,  and  arrayed  themselves 
in  open  opposition  to  the  government,  proclaiming  re- 
sistance to  constituted  authority  as  their  profession  of 
faith. 

Apart  from  the  religious  character  of  the  Raskol,  it 
thus  assumed  another  aspect,  social  and  political,  equally 
important  as  a  popular  protestation  against  new  or  for- 
eign habits,  customs,  and  laws.  In  its  origin  and  incep- 
tion it  was  but  a  blind  attachment  to  errors  born  of  ig- 
norance, prejudice,  and  superstition,  essentially  a  relig- 
ious movement,  and  upon  this,  its  first  principle,  was  en- 
grafted, during  Peter's  reign,  that  of  hostility  to  the 
existing  government,  and  to  constituted  authority.  The 
reforms  inaugurated  by  him  were  generally  accepted  by 
the  nobles  and  by  tlie  upper  classes,  but  were  re])udiated 
by  the  people ;  tlie  lines  of  demarcation  between  the  two 
sections  of  society  were  more  strongly  drawn,  and  the 
Raskol  became  concentrated,  almost  entirely,  in  the  lower  i 
ranks,  which  remained  persistently  faithful  to  the  an- 
cient order  of  things.  It  was  conservative  and  reaction- 
ary, hostile  as  well  to  civil  as  to  religious  reform,  a  })ow- 
ful  and  dangerous  element,  frequently  availed  of  by  un-  [ 
scrupulous  and  designing  men  for  the  furtherance  of 


From  siraniiik,  a  traveller,  or  wanderer. 


196       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

their  ambitious  ends.  The  Old  Believers  were,  and  are 
still,  ui)liolders  of  ancient  usages,  as  well  as  of  ancient 
creeds ;  they  are  old  Russians,  Slavophiles,  in  the  fullest 
sense,  Asiatic,  Oriental  in  their  opposition  to  change  or 
progress  ;  they  still  look  back  to  the  days  of  their  fa- 
thers as  the  golden  age,  and  see  no  hope  nor  encourage- 
ment in  Avhat  the  future  may  have  to  offer.  This  spirit, 
which  has  always  been  a  characteristic  of  the  Eussian 
people  generalh^,  has,  nurtured  and  fostered  by  religious 
enthusiasm,  been  one  of  the  strongest  influences  against 
which  modern  civilization,  aided  by  government  support, 
has  had  to  contend.  It  explains  in  some  degree  the 
crude  revolutionary  movements  which  have  at  times 
temporarily  disturbed  the  empire.  Ignorant  and  fa- 
natical opposition  to  authority  has  frequently  led  to  im- 
patience of  all  control,  political  or  moral,  and  given  rise 
to  the  wildest  theories  of  socialism  and  communism. 

There  is  a  lil>eral  and  democratic  tendency  in  the 
Easkol,  notwithstanding  its  stationary  and  reactionary 
character.  It  sprang  into  existence  not  long  after  the 
establishment  of  serfdom ;  its  lowly  origin  won  for  it 
early  unconscious  sympathy  among  an  enslaved  popula- 
tion, to  whom  it  appealed  the  more  strongly  from  its  re- 
jection by  their  masters.  The  people,  in  their  material 
condition,  were  but  little  better  than  the  beasts  of  the 
field,  and  the  aspirations  natural  to  the  heart  of  man 
found  solace  in  the  prospect  of  spiritual  independence. 
Their  souls,  if  not  their  bodies,  were  their  own  ;  and,  in 
the  sphere  of  religious  belief,  they  unwittingly  found  the 
opportunity  for  self-assertion  which  raised  them  in  their 
own  estimation,  and  enabled  them,  in  some  degree,  to 
realize  the  dignity  of  their  manhood.  Doctrines,  to 
which  they  were  already  inclined,  met  Avith  more  hearty 
response  from  being  at  variance  with  those  of  their  supe- 


IXCOHEEENT  RESULTS  OF  THE  KASKOL. 


197 


riors ;  sympathy  for  their  brethren,  oppressed  on  relig- 
ious grounds,  inspired  sjinpathy  for  all  victims  of  au- 
thority. The  Easkol  opened  its  ranks,  and  afforded  pro- 
tection to  the  fugitive  from  justice,  as  well  as  to  the  suf- 
ferer from  religious  persecution.  Its  many  sects,  hostile 
and  warring  each  with  the  other,  were  united  in  opposi- 
tion, not  only  to  the  established  Church,  but  also  to  the 
newly  constituted  order  of  things  throughout ;  and  the 
spirit  of  resistance  to  clerical  intolerance  was  in  close 
accord  with  resistance  to  civil  authority,  each,  by  mutual 
reaction,  supporting  and  sustaining  the  other. 

In  the  vast  field  of  theological  discussion  there  is  but 
shght  hinderance  to  the  wildest  efforts  of  the  imagina- 
tion ;  no  material  facts,  no  perfectly  ascertained  nor  mi- 
nutely defined  beliefs  arrest  the  speculative  flights  of 
thought,  or  direct  them  to  ])ositive  and  necessary  conclu- 
sions. They  may  wander  on  indefinitely,  developing  most 
contradictory,  yet  logical,  consequences ;  and  the  excitable, 
imaginative  disposition  of  the  Russian  people,  their  de- 
vout and  superstitious  temperament,  render  them  espe- 
cially prone  to  indulge  in  ratiocinations  of  this  nature ; 
while  the  methodical,  argumentative  bent  of  their  mind 
leads  them  on,  from  deduction  to  deduction,  to  the  utmost 
extremes,  which,  however  irrational,  or  even  absurd,  they 
are  boldly  prepared  to  accept.  The  fundamental  dogmas 
of  Orthodoxy,  moreover,  while  being  immutable,  are  sim- 
ple and  elementary,  conveyed  in  language  often  vague  and 
mysterious,  capable  of  divers  inter])retations ;  consequent- 
ly an  inclination  to  refine  and  speculate  is  developed  as 
a  means  of  satisfying  a  spiritual  craving.  From  this 
proclivity,  freely  exercised  by  an  illiterate  but  intelligent 
people,  untrammelled  by  an}^  restraint,  without  guidance 
from  any  recognized  authority,  has  arisen  the  multiplic- 
ity of  sects  in  the  Easkol,  the  widely  diverging  doctrines, 


198       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

the  exti^aordinary,  often  contradictory,  but  apparently 
logical  results  arrived  at  from  a  common  starting-point. 

From  its  inception  the  Easkol  seemed  doomed  to  early 
extinction.  The  Old  Believers  originall}^  rebelled  in  sup- 
port of  ancient  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  from  the  first 
they  Avere  confronted  by  an  obstacle  fitted  to  deter  men 
of  less  enthusiasm  or  of  "weaker  faith.  The  only  bishop 
who  shai'cd  their  views,  when  they  rejected  Nikon's  re- 
forms, was  Paul  of  Kolomna ;  he  was  exiled,  and  died 
without  having  consecrated  any  successor  in  his  episco- 
pal office.  The  Easkol,  thus  left  without  a  head,  with- 
out a  bishop  to  renew  and  perpetuate  its  priesthood,  with- 
out officers  to  administer  the  rites  which  it  had  been  cre- 
ated to  defend,  seemed  paralyzed  from  its  birlh.  In  the 
opinion  of  its  adherents  the  Easkol  was  not  merely  a  doc- 
trinal system  that  could  be  propagated  by  ordinary  teach- 
ers, it  was  the  true  original  Church  of  divine  institution, 
now  purified  of  error,  estabhshing  the  connection  between 
man  and  God  by  the  intermediary  of  a  divinely  appointed 
priesthood,  capable  of  transmitting,  in  regular  apostolic 
succession,  the  powers  received  from  its  Great  High  Priest. 
By  the  bereavement  it  suffered  at  the  death  of  its  only 
bishop,  all  connection  with  Christ  was  severed ;  its  mis- 
sion was  frustrated  before  it  had  commenced ;  the  rea- 
son for  its  existence  and  the  possibility  of  its  continu- 
ance were  destroyed  by  the  loss  of  the  sacred  authority, 
Avithout  which,  as  they  themselves  at  first  believed,  there 
could  be  neither  Church  nor  clergy.  The  difficulty 
seemed  insurmountable,  but  they  had  gone  too  far  to 
recede,  and  religious  enthusiasm  stimulated  their  inge- 
nuity. Two  paths  only  were  open ;  the  more  exalted 
and  extreme  of  their  number  chose  the  one,  the  more 
conservative  followed  the  other,  and  schism  arose  within 
the  schism  ahnost  at  its  inception. 


DIVISION  OF  THE  EASKOL. 


199 


The  Easkol  was  divided  into  two  sects,  which  have 
ever  remained,  each  hostile  to  tlie  other.  The  adherents 
of  one  retained  the  belief  that  Christianity,  or  a  Church, 
could  not  exist  without  a  priesthood  of  regular  apostolic 
descent ;  they  held  that  the  Church  of  Russia  had  not 
necessarily,  by  adopting  Xikon's  heresy,  lost  its  sacred 
character,  that  ordination  of  priests  by  its  bishops  was 
still  valid,  and,  consequently,  that  to  have  a  clergy  in 
regular  standing  they  had  but  to  convert  and  draw  to 
their  ranks  ministers  of  the  national  estabhshment. 
These  sectarians  took  the  name  of  "  Popovtsi," '  or 
Priest-possessing. 

The  adherents  of  the  other  declared  that,  by  anathe- 
matizing true  believers,  by  rejecting  ancient  traditions, 
books,  and  ritual,  the  National  Church  had  become  heret- 
ical, and  lost  all  claim  to  divine  power  or  authority  ;  it 
was  accursed,  and  its  ministers  were  children  of  the  Evil 
One ;  any  communication  with  them  was  a  sin,  and  con- 
secration or  ordination  by  them  was  pollution.  The 
Eastern  patriarchs  shared  in  the  condemnation,  and  no 
relief  could  come  from  them.  Orthodoxy  was  extinct, 
apostolic  succession  and  priesthood  had  perished  Avith  it. 
These  fanatics  were  designated  as  "  Bezpopovtsi," '  or 
those  without  priests. 

The  existence  of  a  sacerdotal  class,  although  it  was 
small  in  number,  and  composed  chiefly  of  ignorant,  venal, 
or  unfrocked  popes,  prevented  the  complete  separation 
of  the  Popovtsi  from  the  established  Church,  and  the 
utter  rejection  by  them  of  all  Orthodox  doctrines.  They 
recognize,  and  still  accept,  the  sacraments,  and  have,  as 
will  be  explained,  managed  to  revive  the  episcopate  and 
to  establish  a  regular  hierarchy  of  their  own. 

'  From  pope,  a  priest  of  the  Russian  Church. 
"  From  bez,  without,  and  pojjc,  a  priest. 


200       '^IIE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 


The  Bezpopovtsi,  on  the  contrary,  with  no  stable  foun- 
dation on  which  to  stay  their  belief,  no  guiding  author- 
ity to  direct  their  steps,  have  wandered  from  (.  Iiristian 
truth  and  ordinary  morality,  ramifying  in  every  conceiv- 
able direction,  following  out,  with  inexorable  logic,  to 
their  most  extravagant  and  absurd  conclusions  tlie  vaga- 
ries and  eccentricities  of  individual  opinion. 

Renouncing  the  priesthood,  they  have  abandoned  all 
recognized  forms  of  Orthodox  or  Christian  Avorship ;  of 
the  seven  channels  of  divine  grace,  they  have  rejected 
all  save  baptism,  which  may  be  administered  by  lay 
brethi^en ;  the  others  are  closed  forever.  Most  extraor- 
dinary and  conflicting  ideas  prevail  among  them,  and 
each  one  is  free  to  adopt  and  to  follow  such  as  may  seem 
good  in  his  own  eyes.  The  more  timid  and  superstitious 
among  them,  reluctant  to  accept  as  final  their  utter  de- 
privation of  all  Christian  ordinances,  and  their  complete 
severance  from  all  Church  organization,  have  ransacked 
their  imaginations  to  devise  substitutes  for  the  one  and 
the  other  wherewith  to  appease  their  spiritual  cravings. 
"Without  priests  to  hear  confession  and  grant  absolution, 
some  confess  to  elders,  some  to  sisters,  as  partaldng  by 
their  sex  of  the  blessing  pronounced  on  Mary,  "  blessed 
among  women,"  whom  "all  generations  shall  call 
blessed,"  and  are  fain  to  be  content  Avith  promises  of 
pardon.  Without  communion,  these  famished  souls, 
hungering  for  holy  food,  resort  to  divers  ceremonies 
Avhich  are,  according  to  their  moods  and  disposition,  either 
fanciful  and  touching,  or  cruel  and  revolting :  dried  fruits, 
distributed  by  young  girls,  or  flesh  cut  from  a  virgin's 
breast,  are  partaken  of  for  spiritual  refreshment.  Amid 
their  extravagances  the  ludicrous  blends  Avith  tlie  lugu- 
brious. During  the  service  of  Holy  Thursday  certain  of 
them,  known  as  "gapers"  or  "yaAvners,"  sit  for  hours 


THE  BEZPOPOVTSI.-EXTKAVAGANCES.— MAERIAGE.  201 

with  their  mouths  wide  open,  waiting  for  ministering 
angels  to  quench  their  spiritual  thirst  from  invisible 
chahces.  "While  in  constant  and  patient  expectation  of 
a  miracle  that  shall  again  unite  the  body  of  the  faithful 
upon  earth  with  their  Father  in  heaven,  the  great  num- 
ber of  these  enthusiasts  rub  tranquilly  along  through 
life,  restrained  by  the  engrossing  dilRculties  of  an  ardu- 
ous existence  and  the  natural  kindliness  of  the  Russian 
character,  from  many  of  the  aberrations  that  should 
logically  follow  upon  their  theories ;  but  the  more  ex- 
alted and  fanatic  recoil  from  no  consequences,  however 
painful.  Their  dead  are  buried  without  prayer,  as  they 
have  lived,  in  sickness  and  in  trouble,  without  religious 
consolation ;  marriage  is  ignored,  family  ties  and  obli- 
gations are  disregarded,  and  all  the  bonds  and  recipro- 
cal duties  upon  which  society  is  based  are  repudiated. 
This  question  of  marriage  is  the  chief  stumbling-block 
in  their  path,  the  princii)al  and  fruitful  cause  of  dis- 
sension and  division  am^ong  them.  The  moderate  and 
more  practical  of  their  number  consider  conjugal  re- 
lations as  merely  a  personal  and  conventional  asso- 
.  ciation,  convenient,  entitled  to  respect  even,  but  Avitli 
nothing  sacred  or  inviolable  in  its  character.  The  more 
rigid  affirm  celibacy  to  be  obligatory,  and  marriage  to 
be  a  state  of  continual  sin.  Between  these  two  extremes 
there  is  room  for  the  wildest  and  most  repulsive  theories. 
Carnal  sensuahty  is  allied  in  monstrous  union  with  relig- 
ious mysticism.  Free  love,  independence  of  the  sexes, 
possession  of  women  in  common,  have  been  preached  and 
practised.  Debauchery,  as  an  incidental  weakness  of 
human  nature,  has  been  advocated  as  the  lesser  evil ; 
libertinism  as  preferable  to  concubinage,  and  the  latter 
as  better  than  mamage.  One  of  their  most  austere 
teachers  cynically  declares  that  "  it  is  wiser  to  live  with 


202       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

beasts  tlian  to  be  joined  to  a  wife ;  to  frequent  many 
women  in  secret,  rather  than  live  with  one  openly."  ' 

Such  are  some  of  the  results  at  which  the  most  scru- 
pulous defenders  of  ancient  rites  have  arrived  from  their 
modest  starting-point.  In  order  to  preserve  intact  a  few 
venerable  ceremonies,  they  entered  upon  their  blind  and 
perilous  undertaking,  and  have  been  led,  step  by  step, 
to  abandon,  not  merely  the  doctrines  of  the  Orthodox 
Church,  but  all  principles  of  religion  and  morality.  It 
was  not  without  evident  trepidation  that  even  the  most 
fanatic  were  brought  to  accept  conclusions  so  abhorrent, 
however  logical  in  appearance.  They  have  felt  the  ne- 
cessity of  justifying  their  course,  and  as  their  apology 
have  argued  tliat  Clirist  had  abandoned  His  Church  and 
Ilis  people ;  that  the  triumph  of  sin  and  iniquity  was  the 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecies ;  that  the  evil  days  had  come 
wlien  the  saints  should  be  troubled  and  given  over  to 
the  adversary;  tliat  the  Church,  deprived  of  its  priest- 
hood, Avas  the  desolate  sanctuary  described  by  Daniel; 
that  Antichrist  had  come,  and  the  end  of  all  things  Avas 
draAving  nigh.  "Why,  then,"  said  they,  "should  the 
faithful  be  disquieted  Avithin  themselves,  or  sorrow  over 
a  ruined  Church;  why  mourn  the  social  wreck,  or  be 
concerned  for  the  mortal  destinies  of  the  race,  when  the 
last  trump  is  about  to  sound  ?" 

The  reign  of  Antichrist  and  the  coming  of  the  judg- 
ment-day is  the  ever-recurring  cry  of  the  Easkolniks  gen- 
erally, but  especially  of  the  Bezpopovtsi.  Like  all  relig- 
ious fanatics,  they  differ  Avidely  among  tliemselves  as  to 
the  explication  and  as  to  the  application  of  their  belief 
in  these  events.  Many  of  them  hold  that  this  period  of 
tribulation  may  endure  for  centuries ;  that  it  is  a  third 

'  Kavyline,  quoted  by  N.  Popof,  v.  lievue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Nov.  1", 
1874;  article  by  A.  Leroy-Beaulieu. 


THE  REIGN  OF  ANTICHRIST.— FANATICISM.  203 

Dispensation,  sirailai'  to  the  old  and  the  new,  "wliich  both 
have  passed  away.  The  more  moderate,  together  with 
the  Popovtsi,  understand  them  in  a  spiritual  sense ;  they 
look  more  kindly  on  the  civil  government  and  on  the 
established  Church,  as  having  been  unwittingly  made 
jninisters  of  the  powers  of  darkness,  and  as  being  capable 
of  regeneration.  The  more  rabid  and  extreme  of  the  Bez- 
popovtsi  comprehend  them  literalh'.  Peter  was  Antichrist 
in  person,  who,  in  Peter's  successors,  still  sits  upon  the 
throne,  and  the  Holy  Synod  is  the  ministerial  council  of 
His  Satanic  Majesty.  Herein  hes  a  wide  difference  be- 
tween the  extreme  branches  of  the  Paskol,  less  important 
in  its  religious  aspect,  but  more  so  in  its  political  bearing 
and  consequences.  "With  those  who  regard  the  Church 
and  the  State  as  merely  wandering  from  the  faith,  blind,  it 
may  be,  to  the  truth,  but  not  irredeemably  perverse,  some 
degree  of  harmony  and  some  hope  of  eventual  reconcili- 
ation are  possible ;  but  Avith  the  others,  for  Avhom  all 
existing  institutions,  civil  and  religious,  are  the  incarna- 
tion of  evil,  the  handiwork  of  the  devil,  no  understand- 
ing, truce,  or  peace  can  be  expected. 

The  general  belief  in  the  actual  advent  of  Antichrist 
has  given  rise,  among  the  more  extreme,  who  are  at 
the  same  time  the  more  ignorant  and  credulous,  to  the 
wildest  vagaries,  subversive  of  all  law,  government,  and 
society. 

Inasmuch  as  the  tsar  was  the  personification  of  evil, 
and  his  counsellors  Avere  imps  of  Satan,  obedience  to  his 
decrees  was  sinful  and  infamous,  and  all  communication 
with  him  or  them  Avas  pollution.  To  escape  from  con- 
tamination they  fled  to  desert  places  and  shut  themseh-es 
up  in  hidden  retreats.  Many  deemed  death  preferable 
to  life  amid  error  and  iniquity,  and  shortened  their  pro- 
bation in  an  accursed  world  by  murder  and  suicide.  Cer- 


20-1       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

tain  fanatics,  called  "  Dieto-oubiisti,"  or  Cliild-killors,  felt 
it  a  religious  duty  to  slay  new-born  infants,  in  order  that 
their  souls,  innocent  of  sin,  might  be  sure  of  heaven 
without  risk  of  damnation ;  some  known  as  Stranglers, 
or  Fellers  (Doushilstchiki,  or  Tioukalstchiki),  conceived 
that  a  violent  death  was  the  true  way  of  salvation,  plead- 
ing in  grim  earnestness  that  "  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
suffereth  violence;  the  violent  take  it  by  force''  (Mat- 
thew xi.,  12),  and  piously  despatched  their  relativ^es  and 
friends  by  strangulation  or  blows,  in  case  of  mortal  ill- 
ness ;  others,  who  were  very  numerous  in  the  early  days 
of  the  Raskol,  the  Philipovtsi,  disciples  of  one  Philip, 
who  were  also  called  Burners  (Sojigateli),  preached  re- 
demption by  suicide  and  purification  by  fire.  In  the 
wilds  of  Siberia  and  in  the  Ural  Mountains  hundreds, 
whole  families  at  a  time,  threw  themselves  into  the 
flames  of  their  burning  houses,  kindled  by  their  own 
hands,  or  offered  themselves  up  on  funeral  pyres,  with 
prayers  and  songs,  as  a  holocaust  unto  the  Lord. 

Belief  in  Antichrist  and  in  the  triumph  of  iniquity 
induced  expectation  of  the  millennium  and  of  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  to  reign  with  the  faithful  for  a  thou- 
sand years.  Vehement  exhortations  of  crazed  enthusi- 
asts, interpreting  hterally  the  prophecies  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, excited  the  imaginations  of  the  ignorant  and 
su])erstitious  with  wild  dreams  of  material  ha})])iness 
soon  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  elect.  Even  in  recent  days, 
in  spite  of  strict  laws  and  prohibitive  enactments,  im- 
])ostors  have  played  upon  the  credulity  of  the  simple  and 
devout  population.  Accompanied  by  women,  whom  they 
presented  for  adoration  as  the  Mother  of  God,  or  as  the 
Mystic  Spouse  of  the  Church,  they  have  asserted  them- 
selves to  be  the  ])romised  Messiah,  or  the  "  voice  of  one 
crying  in  the  wilderness,"  foretelling  the  coming  of  the 


THE  MILLENNIUM.— WILD  ECCENTRICITIES.  205 

Lord,  and  have  sent  forth  their  followers  as  ''seekers 
after  Christ"  ("  iskateli  Christa"),  to  search  through  the 
world  for  the  Redeemer.  No  prediction  was  too  im- 
probable, no  extravagance  too  wild,  for  credence.  Simple 
peasants,  princes  of  national  and  foreign  hneage,  mighty 
warriors,  have  been  announced  as  the  long-expected 
Saviour.  Napoleon,  destroyer  of  kings,  avenger  of  op- 
pressed nationahties,  was  hailed  as  the  victorious  con- 
queror who  was  to  put  all  things  under  his  feet.  There 
are  still  worshippers  in  secret  at  his  shrine — his  death  is 
denied ;  he  escaped  from  captivity  and  found  refuge  in 
the  depths  of  Siberia,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal,  from 
whence  he  shall  come,  in  the  fulness  of  time,  to  trample 
upon  Satan  and  estabhsh  the  kingdom  of  peace  and 
righteousness.  The  ready  acceptance  of  doctrines  so 
strange  and  fanciful  must  be  ascribed  in  great  measure 
to  the  existence  among  the  people  of  vague  aspirations, 
similar  to  those  among  the  ancient  Jews,  to  ardent  desire 
for  freedom  and  for  rehef  from  slavery,  to  a  universal 
longing  for  emancipation  from  serfdom  and  its  burdens, 
to  the  hope  and  expectation  of  a  future  re])artition  of  the 
soil.  Promises  of  coming  liberty  and  assurances  of  par- 
ticipation in  the  wealth  of  their  masters,  based  on  Bibli- 
cal pro]ihecies,  Avere  welcome  to  an  oppressed  and  suffer- 
ing population. 

The  abolition  of  serfdom  was  enthusiastically  hailed  as 
the  commencement  of  the  final  revolution,  the  be<?inninff 
of  the  end  so  eagerly  desired  and  so  long  waited  for.  It 
deprived,  for  a  while,  the  preachers  of  revolt  and  resist- 
ance of  their  most  formidable  arguments,  and  checked 
the  growth  of  the  extreme  and  fanatical  sects  of  the 
Raskol.  As,  however,  this  benevolent  measure  failed  to 
immediately  realize  their  extravagant  anticipations,  in 
their  ignorance  and  impatience,  incapable  of  compre- 


20G       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

bending  its  operation  or  of  appreciating  the  beneficent 
results  destined  to  flow  from  it,  tbey  have  made  the  tardy 
reabzation  of  its  blessings  a  fresh  departure  for  denunci- 
ation of  the  authorities,  who,  as  they  aver,  ever  seek  to 
defraud  the  people  of  their  rights.  The  influence  of 
these  apostles  of  disorder  and  evil  is  still  sorely  felt,  but 
it  has  diminished,  and  must  eventually  yield  to  the  era 
of  progress  and  enlightenment  inaugurated  by  Alexan- 
der the  Emancipator. 

Russia  is  not  alone  subject  to  the  reproach  of  extraor- 
dinary and  extravagant  ideas,  nor  may  their  existence 
be  solely  attributed  to  the  ignorance  and  degradation  of 
her  people ;  they  have  had  their  counterpart  in  England 
and  in  America,  under  very  different  conditions.  The 
Ironsides  of  Cromwell,  the  Puritans  of  New  England, 
bear  strong  resemblance  to  the  Old  Believers,  and  for 
originality,  eccentricity,  and  multiplicity  of  religious 
creeds,  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  in  no  whit  inferior  to  the 
Muscovite  of  AVliite  Russia.  The  great  republic  of  the 
ISTew  World  and  the  vast  empire  of  the  North  complacent- 
ly find  many  points  of  contact,  and  this  one  is,  perhaps, 
of  all,  the  most  remarkable.  Prophets  and  prophetesses 
of  divers  revelations  have  rallied  around  them,  in  Amer- 
ica, disciples  by  thousands ;  no  doctrine  has  been  too  ab- 
surd, no  creed  too  subversive  of  order  or  of  morality,  to 
find  acceptance  and  gather  adherents  there  among  Mor- 
mons, Millerites,  advocates  of  free  love,  and  multitudi- 
nous sects  of  similar  description. 

This  singular  analogy  between  two  people  of  such  dif- 
ferent antecedents  and  character,  surrounded  by  influ- 
ences so  opposite  and  antagonistic,  is  susceptible,  in  some 
degree  at  least,  of  explanation.  In  one  case  there  has 
been  extraordinary  exuberance  of  ideas,  excessive  indi- 
viduaUty  of  opinion,  a  vigorous  spirit  of  initiative  and 


RELIGIOUS  SECTS  IN  A3IEEICA  AND  RUSSIA.  £07 

innovation,  independence  of  thought,  and  impatience  of 
authority;  these  characteristics,  combined  with  strong 
devotional  tendencies  inherited  from  a  Puritan  ancestry, 
have  overflowed  the  natural  channels  of  politics  and  in- 
dustry into  those  of  rehgious  speculation  and  creeds.  In 
the  other,  the  domain  of  religious  thought  was  the  only 
one  open  to  the  aspirations  and  struggling  efforts  of  the 
popular  mind,  the  only  sphere  in  which  the  intelligence 
of  the  people  could  move  freely  and  without  repression, 
or  find  opportunity  for  its  expression  and  development. 
Mournful  as  have  been  the  results  attained  in  Eussia, 
they  bear,  in  their  vigor,  fecundity,  and  originality,  strong 
proof  of  intellectual  energy  and  vitality  in  the  Kussian 
people,  of  singleness  of  purpose,  and  of  deep  sense  of  re- 
ligious obhgation ;  great  qualities  in  themselves,  which 
are,  if  rightly  directed,  essential  elements  in  the  growth 
of  a  great  nation. 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Raskol  Socially  and  Politically. — Praobrajenski  and  Rogojski. — 
Organization  of  Popovtsism  and  Bezpopovtsism. — Attempts  at  Rec- 
onciliation •with  the  Church.  —  The  Edinovertsi. — Modification  of 
Raskol ;  its  Extreme  Sects. 

The  Easkol  has,  during  its  existence  of  more  than  two 
centuries,  exerted  a  wide,  varied,  and  deeply-felt  influ- 
ence upon  the  Russian  nation,  and  has,  in  its  turn,  under- 
gone great  changes  and  modifications  from  the  pressure 
of  surrounding  circumstances. 

Having  considered  it  in  its  spiritual  and  religious  hear- 
ing upon  the  mental  and  moral  condition  of  the  people, 
and  upon  the  progress  of  civilization  in  liussia,  and  hav- 
ing traced  the  results  flowing  from  it  in  this  direction,  it 
is  necessary,  for  a  full  comprehension  of  the  influence  it 
has  had,  and  still  exercises,  to  view  it  in  its  social  and  po- 
litical aspect ;  this  is  not  less  important,  and  it  presents 
for  investigation  phenomena  of  an  equally  complex  and 
peculiar  nature ;  it  will  also  bo  interesting  to  examine 
the  counter  effect  produced  upon  it  in  the  gradual  devel- 
opment of  the  nation  during  a  long  series  of  years,  and 
its  present  position,  as  an  essential  element  of  the  Rus- 
sian social  fabric. 

Any  attempt  to  estimate  the  power  and  the  influence 
of  the  Raskol,  by  ascertaining  the  extent  of  its  sway  and 
the  number  of  its  adherents,  can  give  but  vague  and  indef- 
inite results,  from  the  want  of  sufficient  data  whereupon 
to  base  an  opinion.  Official  reports  profess  to  exhibit 
the  statistics  of  all  the  sects  within  the  empire ;  the  Ras- 


EASKOLNIKS.— THEIR  NUMBERS. 


209 


kolniks  are  included,  and,  by  the  census  of  1871,  they 
number  about  eleven  hundred  thousand.  This  figure  is, 
by  all  competent  authority,  rejected  as  much  below  the 
actual  truth,  and  the  estimates  made  by  those  most  ca- 
pable of  judging  vary  from  two  to  fifteen  millions.  The 
Easkolniks  do  not  themselves  pretend  to  know  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy,  and  only  affirm  that  "  they  are  very 
numerous." 

The  government  lists  embrace  only  those  who  have, 
generation  after  generation,  refused  to  be  enrolled  upon 
the  parish  registers,  and  Avho  openly  profess  to  be  schis- 
matics. Besides  these  there  are  the  many  who  either  tim- 
idly shun  the  avowal  of  their  affiliation  or  who  belong 
secretly  to  prohibited  sects,  and  they  comprise  a  very 
numerous  class.  A  Ilussian  writer,  about  twelve  years 
ago,  basing  his  calculation  upon  a  careful  examination  of 
the  reports  of  the  Holy  Synod  regarding  the  religious 
condition  of  the  peo])le,  arrived  at  a  total  of  from  nine 
to  ten  millions.  Competent  specialists  of  recent  date' 
reckon  them  at  fifteen  millions.  These  latter  figures  may 
be  excessive,  but  an  estimate  of  ten  or  eleven  millions  is 
probably  not  an  exaggerated  one  to-day  (1886),  and  it 
agrees  substantially  with  such  information  as  can  be  de- 
rived from  the  Easkolniks  themselves.  It  is  certain  that 
their  number  is  rapidly  increasing.  Figures,  however, 
give  but  a  partial  and  inadequate  idea  of  the  extent  and 
influence  of  the  movement.  Apart  from  those  who  may 
be  said  to  be  enrolled  in  its  ranks,  whether  as  public 
professors  or  as  secret  adherents,  there  is  a  very  much 
larger  number  who,  without  actively  joining,  are  in  sym- 
pathy, more  or  less  earnest,  with  it.    As  a  general  rule, 

'  Scbedo-Ferroli,  "La  tolcrancn  ct  le  Scliisme  rcligieux  cn  Russie," 
p.  153,  cited  by  Lcroy-Bcaulicu,  in  an  article  of  La  lievue  des  Deux 
Monden,  Mai  1",  1875. 

14 


210       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

the  peasant  or  laborer  who  remains  true  to  the  Ortho- 
dox Church  does  not  look  down  upon  the  Raskolniks  as 
heretics  to  be  hated  or  despised.  On  the  contrary,  he 
feels,  ratlier,  respect  for  them  as  holy  men,  more  pious 
and  devout  than  himself,  ready,  like  the  early  Christians, 
to  brave  obloqu}'-  and  reproach  for  the  ancient  faith. 
Until  recent  ameliorations  in  the  morals  and  condition 
of  the  official  clergy  removed  from  it  the  well-merited 
charge  of  greed,  ignorance,  and  indolence,  it  compared 
unfavorably  with  the  often  disinterested,  always  active 
and  energetic,  propagators  of  Dissent ;  the  Church  suf- 
fered in  popular  estimation  from  the  comparison,  even 
among  its  own  children,  while  the  Easkol  gained.  This 
feeling  of  sympathy  for  it  is  general ;  it  is  evinced  in 
constant  willingness  to  befriend,  or  screen,  its  adherents ; 
it  is  deep-rooted  and  persistent.  By  many,  even  of  the 
more  liberal  members  of  the  Orthodox  communion,  it  is 
believed  and  feared  that  a  very  large  portion  of  the 
nation  would  lapse  into  Dissent  if  all  restraint  were  re- 
moved, and  grave  apprehensions  of  the  consequences  to 
the  Church  of  any  radical  measures  of  relief  are  a  seri- 
ous obstacle  to  the  recognition  of  perfect  freedom  of 
conscience. 

The  strength  of  the  schism  is  not  to  be  measured  by 
the  number  of  its  adherents  or  by  tlie  extent  of  popular 
sympathy  with  it ;  there  is  an  additional  element  to  be 
considered,  which  is  the  character  of  that  portion  of  the 
nation  in  which  it  arose,  and  where  it  still  exists  in  its 
fullest  development. 

Ridiculed  and  despised  by  the  educated  and  the  noble, 
it  flourished  especially  among  the  people,  and  was  re- 
cruited almost  wholly  among  the  laboring  classes,  peas- 
ants and  mechanics,  shop-keepers  and  petty  merchants. 
In  its  origin  a  religious  movement,  it  became  a  social 


DE^'ELOPMENT  OF  THE  EASKOL  SOCIALLY.  £11 

and  political  one  when  the  violent  reforms  of  Peter  the 
Great  divided  the  nation,  and  created  two  hostile  camps, 
with  no  feeling  of  reciprocal  obhgations  or  any  common 
bond  of  union.  Partisans  of  the  ancient  faith  were  up- 
holders of  ancient  customs,  and  rallied  to  their  side  the 
opponents  of  social  innovations  and  of  civil  changes. 
Religious  enthusiasts  S3'mpatliized  with  Old  Muscovites, 
and  the  national  party  with  Old  Believers.  This  union 
was,  however,  a  union  among  the  lower  classes ;  the  no- 
ble, the  wealthy,  the  ambitious,  with  few  exceptions,  fol- 
lowed the  emperoi'^s  lead,  and  looked,  with  all  the  haugh- 
ty superciliousness  of  that  age,  upon  the  people  and  upon 
popular  opinion.  The  contempt  of  the  great  world  Avas 
an  effectual  j^rotection  to  the  Raslcol,  and  exercised  its 
adherents  in  Tiabits  of  meekness  and  patience.  When,  as 
it  frequently  happened,  attention  was  drawn  to  them, 
and  persecution  followed,  their  common  suffei'ings  ce- 
mented their  union  and  strengthened  their  endurance ; 
but  their  lowly  estate  was  their  best  safeguard  in  the 
early  days ;  the  movement  prospered  in  obscurity,  and 
attained  formidable  proportions  before  it  was  deemed 
of  consequence  or  inspired  apprehension.  Although,  at 
times,  assailed  at  the  instance  of  the  Church,  or,  igno- 
rantly  serving  as  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  ambitious  and  un- 
successful schemers,  it  shared  their  fate  and  punisliment, 
the  crisis  past,  it  fell  back  again  into  the  shadow  of  its 
insignificance,  and,  with  occasional  vicissitudes,  was,  for 
a  century  and  a  half,  alike  ignored  and  neglected.  Bur- 
rowing in  the  lower  striata  of  social  life,  protected  by  its 
seclusion,  it  steadily  increased  and  ramified.  Strong  de- 
votional feeling  and  earnest  convictions  developcnl  the 
moral  sense  among  its  adherents  to  a  high  degree.  Ev- 
ery member  of  a  community,  the  character  of  which  may 
be  affected  by  the  behavior  of  the  persons  who  compose  it, 


212      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

is  interested  to  watch  caref  ull}"  over  liis  own  demeanor  and 
over  that  of  his  brethren,  and  the  mutual  support  which 
results  therefrom  contributed,  in  the  case  of  the  Ras- 
kolniks,  to  raise  the  standard  of  morality  among  them. 
Their  religious  belief  and  practices  encouraged  sobriety 
and  frugality ;  habit  of  f rse  inquiry,  and  attempt  at  inde- 
pendence of  thought  upon  spiritual  matters,  were  followed 
by  general  increase  of  intelligence,  and,  under  these  in- 
fluences, the  Easkolniks,  gradually  and  justly,  won  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  honest,  the  most  capable, 
and  the  most  reliable  portion  of  the  population.  They 
were  also  banded  together  by  a  species  of  free-masonry, 
a  common  feeling  of  necessary  co-operation  and  resistance 
to  their  powerful  adversaries,  while  constant  fear  of  per- 
secution kept  their  zeal  ahve.  To  the  vigor  imparted 
by  these  causes,  of  a  moral  nature,  are  to  be  added  the 
energy  and  independence  resulting  from  the  accumula- 
tion of  wealth.  Besides  the  special  influence  of  the  teach- 
ings of  their  creed,  which  preserved  them  from  the  beset- 
ting sins  of  the  Russian  people,  self-indulgence  and  in- 
temperance, they  felt  the  impulse  of  other  agencies,  more 
general  and  more  practical  in  their  character. 

Sects  and  races  oppressed  by  persecution,  excluded 
from  all  part  or  interest  in  public  or  national  afi"airs, 
find  vent  for  their  activit}^  and  for  the  exercise  of  their 
intelligence,  in  industrial,  financial,  or  commercial  enter- 
prises. This  has  been  the  case  with  the  Jews  through- 
out the  Avorld,  with  the  Annenians  in  the  East  and  the 
Parsees  in  India ;  and  the  pursuit  of  wealth  or  of  mate- 
rial prosperity,  as  the  principal  object  in  life  for  genera- 
tions, has  usually  developed  an  hereditary  and  peculiar 
aptitude  for  its  acquisition.  This  result  is  also  true  of  the 
Raskolniks,  although,  doubtless,  from  the  circumstances 
of  their  situation,  to  a  less  extent  and  degree.    At  the 


MODIFICATIONS  IN  THE  EASKOL. 


213 


same  time,  instinctively,  and  in  view  of  the  universal 
corruption  of  the  administration,  they  realized  that 
wealth  was  for  them  a  tower  of  strength  against  their 
oppressors.  At  ^tloscow,  many  of  the  finest  houses  and 
the  largest  factories  belong  to  Old  BeHevers ;  at  Perm, 
and  in  the  mining  districts  of  the  Ural,  they  are  the 
most  substantial  capitalists.  Their  success  has  been  suf- 
ficiently marked  to  excite  the  envy  of  their  competitors, 
and  to  arouse  clamorous  complaints  of  a  threatened  mo- 
nopoly by  them  of  industrial  and  financial  undertakings. 
Their  system  of  mutual  assistance  and  support  is  another 
secret  of  their  prosperity,  and  many,  indifferent  to  their 
principles,  have  joined  their  ranks  to  profit  by  their  tac- 
itly recognized  co-operative  organization. 

Among  them,  as  in  every  community,  there  are  in- 
triguing and  ambitious  men,  ready  to  make  use  of  the 
enthusiasm  of  their  more  simple  brethren,  and  to  ad- 
vance their  own  ends  at  the  expense  of  their  neighbors ; 
but  the  Raskolniks  cannot,  as  a  body,  be  accused  of  being 
actuated  entirely  by  selfish  motives ;  they  are  liberal  and 
charitable,  and  many  of  them  dispense  their  wealth  free- 
ly and  generously  in  the  endoA\'ment  of  schools  and  be- 
nevolent institutions ;  some,  even,  in  the  encouragement 
of  art  and  literature,  although,  in  this  respect,  their  mu- 
nificence is  generally,  and  in  confomiity  with  their  prej- 
udices, confined  to  what  is  national  and  Russian. 

"With  increasing  riches,  and  the  accompanying  tend- 
ency to  luxury  of  living,  there  has  been  considerable  re- 
laxation in  the  severity  of  their  liabits  and  practices, 
more  inclination  to  mingle  with  the  outer  world  and 
share  in  its  duties  and  ])leasures.  Deficient  education 
has  limited  the  influence  of  this  temptation,  but,  in  the 
nature  of  things,  it  is  destined  to  continue  and  to  extend 
with  the  progress  of  enlightenment  and  of  modern  civil- 


214       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ization,  and  Avill  introduce  greater  changes  and  modifica- 
tions in  the  character  and  principles  of  the  Raskol. 

The  healthy  development  Avhich  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  its  habit  of  free  inquiry,  and  from  the  free- 
dom accorded  to  individual  opinion,  has  been  effectually 
hampered,  not  only  by  actual  want  of  education,  but  also 
by  the  cramping  and  restricted  nature  of  the  few  studies 
permitted. 

The  Easkolniks  were,  and  are,  strongly  opposed  to  all 
modern,  and  especially  to  all  foreign,  ideas ;  their  ears  are 
closed  to  what  they  deem  new-fangled  notions,  whether 
of  domestic  or  foreign  origin,  as  being  tainted  with  im- 
piety and  heresy ;  they  rest  content  Avith  their  ancient 
Slavonic  literature,  Avith  the  Scriptures,  Avith  old  devo- 
tional books ;  they  deUberately  shut  themselves  up  in  a 
world  of  their  own,  fenced  about  by  inveterate  preju- 
dices ;  they  turn  round  and  round  Avithin  a  narrow  cir- 
cle, the  bounds  of  Avhich  their  thoughts,  hoAvever  unre- 
strained therein,  may  never  pass.  Here  lies  the  essential 
difference  between  Russian  Easkol  and  German  Prot- 
estantism :  the  one  is  sectional,  narrow-minded,  bigoted, 
jealous,  and  pharasaical ;  the  other  is  universal,  Avhole- 
souled,  liberal,  generous,  and  tolerant. 

A  geographical  and  ethnological  chart  of  the  Easkol 
would  shoAA'  it  to  be  A^ery  unevenly  distributed  over  the 
land.  It  flourishes  best  among  the  most  energetic  and 
vigorous  of  the  population,  in  and  around  the  ancient 
cities,  among  the  peasants  of  the  North,  the  miners  of 
the  Ural,  the  pioneers  of  Siberia,  and  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Southeast.  It  is  indigenous  to  Great  Eussia,  and  Avhile 
its  adherents  are  found  in  other  provinces  throughout 
the  Avhole  empire,  amid  Orthodox,  Eoman  Catholic,  and 
Protestant  communities,  they  arc  generally  colonists 
from  Great  Eussia,  Avho  live  apart  from  their  neighbors, 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RASKOL.  215 

and,  making  few  proselytes,  are  recruited  from  their 
original  homes. 

It  is  a  natural  and  distinctive  product  of  the  old  Mus- 
covite race,  which,  although  obstinate,  full  of  prejudices, 
and  not  inclined  to  change,  is  realistic  and  superstitious, 
better  satisfied  with  the  form  and  outward  symbol  than 
curious  to  investigate  the  essence,  or  foundation,  of  its 
belief,  and,  above  all,  is  intensely  national. 

Outward  surroundings  have  had  great  influence,  and 
the  predominance  of  Old  Believers  in  the  most  distant 
and  less  populous  districts  is  not  accidental,  but  is  a  nat- 
ural result  of  the  condition  of  the  peoj)le  who  are  thus 
isolated  ;  they  have  little  intercourse  Avith  one  another, 
and  still  less  with  the  outer  world ;  they  remain  more 
primitive  in  their  habits,  and  cling  more  persistently  and 
more  reverently  to  ancient  customs. 

The  distribution  of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Eas- 
kol  is  in  harmony  with  historic  precedent.  The  lay  ele- 
ment of  rehgious  communities  is  ever  apt  to  assert  itself 
more  boldly  in  the  cold  and  rude  regions  of  the  North 
than  in  milder  and  more  genial  climes,  and  accordingly 
the  Popovtsi,  who  retain  a  priesthood,  are  found  chiefly 
towards  the  South,  among  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  along 
the  banks  of  the  lower  Yolga,  and  of  the  river  Ural; 
while  the  Bezpopovtsi,  who  reject  priests  and  all  Church 
government,  occupy  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea,  the 
neighborhood  of  the  great  lakes,  the  slopes  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  the  solitudes  of  Siberia ;  tlie  convent  of 
Yygoretsk,  in  the  Avild  and  desolate  region  through 
which  flows  the  river  Vyg,  was  their  most  important 
centre.  Tliese  northern  governments  are  of  prodigious 
extent :  Archangel  equals  Franco  and  Italy  together ; 
Vologda  and  Perm  are  each  as  large  as  England.  But 
few  churches,  and  these  distant  many  days'  journey  one 


216       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

from  the  other,  are  scattered  over  these  vast  territories ; 
the  number  of  priests  is  small,  as  it  is  fixed  according  to 
the  population,  which  is  scanty.  The  inhabitants  do  not 
congregate  in  villages  of  any  size,  but  are  sparsely  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  region ;  roads,  where  any  exist, 
are  bad,  often  impassable,  and  the  climate  is  inclement 
and  stormy.  Attendance  at  church  is,  perforce,  limited 
to  rare  occasions,  and  pastoral  visits  are  almost  unknown. 
From  want  of  intercourse  with  their  parishioners  the 
clergy  lost  authority  and  influence  over  them ;  the  peas- 
ant, isolated  in  his  isba,"  learned  to  suffice  for  his  own 
needs,  and  became  independent  of  priestly  aid,  even  on 
the  most  solemn  occasions.  Left  to  himself,  he  looked 
to  the  Scriptures  for  his  guide,  and  interpreted  them  ac- 
cording to  his  feeble  and  hmited  light ;  he  had  not  the 
resources  of  the  Protestant  Puritan  in  education,  nor  in 
the  accumulated  wisdom  of  the  Christian  fathers  and 
ancient  philosophers.  "Were  he  capable  of,  and  did  he 
care  for  investigation,  he  could,  at  best,  rely  only  on 
the  bewildering  scholastic  treatises  of  Byzantine  theo- 
logians ;  a  little  learning  is  dangerous,  and  his  mind 
was  starved  with  indigestible  food,  tilled  with  crude  or 
false  ideas,  erroneously  comprehended,  and  his  imagina- 
tion was  fired  by  mystical  sophisms. 

Some  Eussian  writers  have  attributed  the  preponder- 
ance of  the  Bezpopovtsi,  in  the  north  of  Eussia,  to  the 
influence  of  the  neighboring  Protestant  nations  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  but  this  hypothesis  is  unnecessary  for 
the  explanation  of  the  fact,  and  it  is  not  in  accordance 
with  the  peculiarly  indigenous,  national  character  of  the 
movement,  whether  it  be  considered  at  its  inception  or 
in  its  most  radical  development. 


'  lAa  is  the  hut,  or  cabin,  of  the  Russian  peasant. 


SPREAD  OF  THE  RASKOL  IN  AND  BEYOND  KUSSU.  217 

Geographically  speaking,  the  ancient  metropolis,  jSIos- 
covr,  is  the  reUgious  centre  of  the  Easkol,  from  whence 
its  missions,  or  colonies,  went  forth,  either  voluntarily  or 
driven  out  by  persecution. 

The  Old  Believers  could  cross  no  ocean,  like  the  Eng- 
lish Pm-itans,  to  bar  pursuit,  but  they  could  find  refuge 
against  oppression  in  the  vast  sohtudes  of  their  native 
land,  or  over  the  borders  among  the  neighboring  people. 
As  exiles,  or  as  emigrants,  they  carried  their  doctrines 
and  their  nationahty  beyond  the  great  lakes,  over  the 
Ural  Mountains,  and  into  the  Caucasus ;  they  sought 
safety  and  peace  among  the  Protestants  of  the  Baltic 
provinces,  the  CathoUcs  of  Poland,  and  the  Mussulmans 
of  the  East.  A^etka,  a  village  of  ancient  Poland,  in  the 
])rovince  of  Mogilev,  became,  at  an  early  day,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Popovtsi ;  there,  rapid  increase  in  their 
numbers  and  in  their  Avealth,  activity  in  the  propagation 
of  their  doctrines,  aroused  the  suspicions  and  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  Pussian  government.  Twice,  in  1735,  under 
Anna  Ivanovna,  and  in  1764-,  under  Catherine  II.,  Eus- 
sian  troops  violated  Polish  territory  to  attack  and  sup- 
press them.  On  the  first  occasion  Yetka  was  destroyed, 
and  its  40,000  inhabitants,  forced  back  into  Eussia,  were 
distributed  through  the  southern  provinces.  They  ob- 
tained pennission  to  settle  among  their  co-religionists  of 
Eussian  Ukraine,  near  Staradoub,'  and  gathered  there, 
within  a  few  years,  over  fifty  thousand  adlierents  around 
the  new  sanctuary.  Yetka  also  soon  regained  nearly  its 
former  importance,  and  was,  a  second  time,  destroyed  by 
Catherine  II. 

Many  colonics  of  Easkolniks  were  established  just  be- 
yond Avhat  vrere  then  the  boundaries  of  the  empire ;  some 


'  Staradoub  means  the  old  oak. 


218       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

were  induced  to  return  to  their  native  land  by  the  liberal 
promises  of  Catherine  11. ;  others  have  again  come  under 
Russian  sway  by  the  conquest  of  the  countries  in  which 
they  were  settled.  A  number  still  remain  on  foreign 
soil ;  one  at  Gumbinnen,  in  Prussia ;  several  in  Bukovina, 
an  Austrian  province ;  others  in  European  Turkey  and 
Asia  Minor.  They  have  always  held  aloof  from  the  peo- 
ple about  them,  and  retained  strong  traces  of  their  Mus- 
covite nationality  and  origin.  The  safety  they  thus  se- 
cured, and  their  liberation  from  Russian  control,  have 
proved  of  signal  advantage  to  the  Raskol,  and  enabled 
it  to  arrive  subsequently  at  a  regular  and  independent 
organization,  such  as,  if  kept  totally  within  the  empire, 
it  never  could  have  realized. 

A  complete  and  comprehensive  system  of  organization 
for  the  Raskol,  as  a  whole,  in  a  religious  sense,  was  ren- 
dered impossible  by  insuperable  difficulties. 

The  absence  of  any  well-defined  theological  creed  or 
standard,  the  free  exercise  allowed  to  individual  opinion, 
have  given  rise  to  innumerable  sects.  Upwards  of  two 
hundred  were  reckoned  in  the  eighteenth  century ;  many 
have  disappeared,  and  are  disappearing ;  more  have  arisen, 
and  are  constantly  arising,  harmonizing,  like  the  denom- 
inations of  Protestantism,  to  a  certain  extent,  but  with- 
out having  a  similarly  stable,  definite,  and  universally 
accepted  basis  of  belief,  and  expressing  every  conceivable 
variety  of  doctrine. 

As  a  social  or  political  institution,  in  whicli  the  relig- 
ious element  enters  to  a  large  degree,  the  consolidation 
of  the  Raskol,  accomplished  with  very  considerable,  if 
not  entire,  success,  was  facilitated  by  the  peculiar  spirit 
of  association,  and  by  the  aptitude  for  self-government 
which  are  characteristics  of  the  Russian  people. 

The  leaders,  succeeding  to  the  inflammatory  enthusi- 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  EASKOL.— POPOTTSISM.  219 

asts  who  originated  the  movement — the  Denissoffs  and 
Koveline,  Avith  many  others — have  generally  been  men 
of  action  and  practical  sense,  evincing  great  administra- 
tive ability.  They  have,  by  their  energy  and  skilful  man- 
agement, given  a  material  unity  and  sohdity  to  the  Ras- 
kol  which  it  could  never  have  attained  if  it  had  contin- 
ued to  be,  as  at  the  first,  simply  a  religious  manifestation. 

For  one  of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Easkol,  for 
Popovtsism,  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  religious  or- 
ganization arose  chiefly  from  circumstance,  and  not  from 
principle,  and  they  were  consequently  far  less  formida- 
ble than  the  obstacles  encountered  by  the  other  branch, 
Bezpopovtsism.  The  former  has  recently  arrived  at  a  so- 
lution of  the  problem  Avhich  proves  apparently  satisfac- 
tory, and  is  accepted  by  the  great  majority  of  its  adlie- 
rents,  though  not  by  all ;  before  treating  of  this  event, 
however,  it  will  be  interesting  to  review  the  vicissitudes 
through  which  it  passed. 

The  recognition  of  the  necessity  of  a  priesthood  for  the 
existence  of  a  Church  maintained,  among  the  Popovtsi, 
the  ancient  dogmas  of  Orthodox}',  and  preserved  the 
unity  of  the  faith.  Indulgence  in  freedom  of  interpre- 
tation was  more  circumscribed,  and  division  into  sects, 
by  differences  of  individual  opinion,  was  less  frequent 
than  among  the  Bezpopovtsi.  Almost  the  only  element 
of  controversy  was  the  conditions  requisite  for  the  ad- 
mission of  popes.  As  their  clergy  was  recruited  among 
refugees  from  the  established  Church,  they  were  con- 
temptuously styled  "  Beglopopovtsi,"  '  or  "  Community 
of  runaway  priests."  These  popes,  before  reception, 
were  subjected  to  humiliating  ordeals  of  abjuration,  pu- 
rification, and  penitence;  they  Avere  rebaptized;  some- 


*  From  begin,  runaway,  and  pope,  priest. 


220       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

times  immersed  in  full  canonicals,  lest,  by  a  prior  removal 
of  their  insignia,  their  sacred  attributes  should  be  washed 
away. 

Not  much  respect  could  be  felt  for  men  thrust  forth 
from  their  own  Church  for  misconduct,  or  tempted  from 
it  by  cupidity.  Generally  they  were  well  remunerated, 
but  held  in  light  esteem  as  mere  hirelings,  in  accidental 
possession  of  certain  exclusive  powers.  They  Avere  treat- 
ed with  increasing  indifference  in  process  of  time,  and 
deacons,  or  even  unordained  persons,  were  accepted  and 
allowed  to  officiate  ;  they  were  kept  in  strict  dependence, 
and  had  but  little  influence  over  the  congregations  who 
paid  their  stipend,  chose  or  rejected  them  at  pleasure, 
and  retained  all  power  and  authority  in  their  own  hands. 
This  predominance  of  the  lay  element  in  the  administra- 
tion of  Church  affairs  was  a  common  feature  of  both 
branches  of  the  Easkol. 

From  their  early  days  the  Easkolniks  of  both  divisions 
favored  the  establishment  of  "skeets,"  or  hermitages, 
convents,  and  similar  institutions,  in  remote  districts,  or 
over  the  border  in  an  adjacent  country,  to  serve  as  ])laces 
of  refuge  and  religious  centres.  Dissensions,  rivalries, 
differences  of  opinion,  creating  numerous  sects,  constant- 
ly arose,  and  no  one  establishment  among  them  all  rose 
to  any  pre-eminence,  or  was  able  to  impose  its  authority 
as  supreme  over  either  the  one  or  the  other  brancli. 

A  terrible  public  calamity  afforded  them  both  an 
opportunity,  of  which  they  cleverly  availed,  to  remedy 
this  grievous  Avant  of  a  central  head. 

The  plague  broke  out  at  Moscow  during  the  reign  of 
Catherine  II.,  and  raged  with  unparalleled  fury;  all 
efforts  of  the  government  to  stay  its  ravages  or  to  afford 
adequate  relief  were  insuificient.  In  this  appalling  cri- 
sis the  empress  made  appeal  to  the  charity  and  gen- 


FEODOCUNS. 


221 


erosity  of  all  her  subjects  for  the  general  good.  Great 
pubhc  misfortunes  level  minor  distinctions  and  draw  to- 
gether communities  suffering  from  a  common  evil ;  the 
people  responded  heartily  to  their  sovereign's  call,  re- 
gardless of  class  or  creed,  and  among  the  first  to  offer 
their  services  were  the  Feodocians. 

This  sect,  named  from  its  founder,  Feodocei,  was  an 
offshoot  from  the  Pomortsi,  or  Dwellers  by  the  sea- 
shore, a  very  numerous  branch  of  the  Bezpopovtsi,  in- 
habiting the  region  between  the  great  lakes  and  the 
"White  Sea.  It  seceded  from  the  main  bod}",  Avhose 
centre  Avas  at  Yygoretsk,  on  the  river  Vyg,  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  on  account  of  the  extreme  violence 
and  ultra  nature  of  the  opinions  of  its  adherents  and 
their  fanatical  enthusiasm. 

About  1737  it  first  appeared  at  Moscow,  where  it 
labored  secretly,  but  most  earnestly,  to  propagate  its 
doctrines,  which  Avere  eminently  hostile  to  the  govern- 
ment, and  maintained  the  principle  of  resistance  to  the 
tsar  as  Antichrist.  Its  efforts  were  crowned  with  such 
measure  of  success  as  to  render  it  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential of  the  many  sects  of  the  Bezpopovtsi. 

Its  leaders,  shrewd  and  astute  men,  saw  their  oppor- 
tunity in  the  public  distress,  and,  masking  an  ulterior 
purpose  under  the  guise  of  solicitude  for  the  general 
welfare,  begged  permission  to  contribute  to  the  measures 
of  rehef,  and  offered  to  create,  at  their  own  expense, 
hospitals  for  their  sick,  and  to  give  burial  to  tlicir  dead. 
Other  sects  of  the  Bezpopovtsi  joined  with  them,  and 
the  Popovtsi  followed  the  example.  Charitable  im- 
pulses, always  strong  and  easily  aroused  among  the 
Russian  people,  were  stimulated  by  the  evident  contin- 
gent advantages  likely  to  accrue,  and  which  the  Raskol- 
niks,  from  their  greater  spirit  of  initiative  and  intelU- 


222       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AXD  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

gence,  were  quick  to  realize.  Their  request  Avas  granted 
in  1771,  and  immediately  the  Bezpopovtsi  at  Praobrajen- 
ski,  and  the  Popovtsi  at  Kogojski,  outlying  and  desert 
suburbs  of  Moscow,  founded  the  establishments  which 
became,  each  respectively  for  its  own  branch,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Easkol.  They  were  under  tlie  direction 
of  men  animated  by  fervent  religious  enthusiasm,  but 
possessed  also  of  sound  practical  sense,  knowledge  of 
business,  and  great  sagacity ;  they  could,  moreover,  de- 
pend implicitly  upon  the  obedience  and  devotion  of  their 
followers,  and  were  amply  supplied  by  them  with  the 
necessary  funds. 

At  first  they  were  content  with  what  the  emergen- 
cies of  the  times  demanded,  having,  however,  wise  fore- 
thought for  the  future.  Very  extensive  grounds  were 
surrounded  by  high  walls,  within  which  cemeteries  were 
set  apart  and  hospitals  erected,  secluded  from  pubhc 
curiosity.  Acting  with  consummate  prudence  and  cir- 
cumspection, they  sedulously  seized  upon  every  favorable 
opportunity  to  extend  their  privileges,  insisting  upon  the 
charitable  nature  and  purpose  of  their  work,  but  always 
humble  and  avoiding  attention,  quietly  profiting  by  the 
general  disdain  Avhich  they  inspired,  and  skilfully  avail- 
ins  themselves  of  their  wealth  to  influence  the  venal  and 
corrupt  officials  of  the  government. 

Under  Alexander  I.,  Koveline,  a  leader  of  the  Feodo- 
cians,  a  very  adroit  and  able  manager,  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining a  very  much  larger  measure  of  independence, 
Avith  permission  to  create  homes  for  the  destitute  and 
similar  benevolent  institutions.  Concessions  accorded  to 
one  branch  were  extended  to  the  other,  and,  Avitliin  com- 
paratively few  years,  these  modest  establishments  had 
grown  to  be  great  and  powerful  communities,  had  ac- 
quired oificial  recognition  under  regular  charters,  secured 


TRAOBRAJENSKI  AN'D  KOGOJSKI. 


223 


the  right  of  self-organization  and  government,  with  au- 
thority to  manage  their  property  and  affairs  free  from 
clerical  or  official  supervision  ;  they  had  each  a  corpor- 
ate seal,  a  treasury,  their  own  laws  and  regulations,  ad- 
ministered by  a  council  or  governing  body  ahnost  totally 
without  control. 

Around  these  centres  the  Easkolniks  gathered  in  great 
numbers,  building  houses,  estabhshing  shops  and  facto- 
ries, until  these  once  deserted  suburbs  were  transformed 
into  flourishing  and  populous  districts.  Thus  within  the 
ancient  capital,  the  stronghold  of  Orthodoxy,  despised 
and  persecuted  followers  of  a  proscribed  creed  finally 
secured  foothold,  and  found  safe  refuge  under  the  aegis 
of  government  protection. 

From  these  headquarters  their  influence  radiated  forth 
over  the  whole  land ;  they  created  subsidiary  branches, 
subject  to  the  central  authority,  and  gathered  in  abun- 
dant wealth  from  gifts  and  bequests ;  at  the  height  of 
their  pros])erity  they  were  said  to  have  had  in  their  treasu- 
ries the  enormous  sum  of  ten  millions  of  roubles  (about 
£1,300,000). '  Their  leaders,  combining  to  a  remarkable 
degree  worldly  shrewdness  with  religious  enthusiasm, 
made  these  establishments,  not  merely  centres  for  the 
propagation  of  their  doctrines,  but  also  centres  of  trade, 
of  manufactures,  and  of  commerce.  They  offered,  not 
only  a  home  for  their  destitute  and  suffering  brethren, 
but  a  refuge  for  all  fugitives,  outlaws,  deserters,  and 
"u^anderers,  who,  under  pretence  of  religious  sympatliy, 
claimed  protection  and  succor,  and  in  this  motley  army 
of  followers  they  found  cheap  and  willing  tools,  ignorant 
but  zealous  emissaries.  During  the  tolerant  reigns  of 
Catherine  II.  and  Alexander  I.  these  institutions  had 


'  See  note,  page  174. 


22-4       THE  KUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

grown  to  such  proportions  as  to  excite  popular  jealousy 
and  government  suspicions ;  their  leaders  were  accused 
of  illicit  and  underhand  machinations,  of  secret  plotting, 
dangerous  to  public  welfare  and  to  the  authorit}'^  of  the 
State;  they  became  involved  in  lawsuits  and  disputes 
regarding  property  alleged  to  have  been  obtained  under 
false  pretences,  or  by  bequests  under  pressure  of  improper 
influences.  An  inquiry  was  ordered  by  Nicholas,  which 
resulted  in  the  confiscation  of  their  riches,  the  sequestra- 
tion of  their  buildings  and  estates,  and,  gravest  calamity 
of  all,  in  the  loss  of  their  independence.  The  hospitals 
and  cemeteries  were  left  to  their  charge,  but  an  imperial 
commissioner  Avas  added  to  their  board  of  administra- 
tion. Their  religious  services  were  prohibited,  and  their 
churches  were  closed  or  handed  over  to  priests  appoint- 
ed by  the  Holy  Synod. 

By  this  last  measure  the  Popovtsi  suffered  equally 
with  their  radical  brethren  of  the  other  branch,  inasmuch 
as  their  clergy,  although  of  Orthodox  ordination,  were, 
as  renegades  from  the  established  Church,  forbidden  to 
officiate. 

Rogojsld,  the  headquarters  of  Popovtsism,  had  provided 
means  for  its  social  organization,  but  it  never  had  pos- 
sessed any  sacred  authority,  and  had  not,  nor  could  it 
have,  satislied  the  eager  aspirations  of  its  disciples  for 
an  ecclesiastical  government  of  divine  origin. 

For  many  long  and  Aveary  years  they  had  endeavored 
to  find  an  escape  from  their  only,  but  humiliating,  method 
of  recruiting  the  priesthood,  and  to  establish  a  hierarchy 
of  their  own  of  regular  apostolic  descent.  Some  among 
them  had  advocated  as  efficacious  the  imposition  of  hands 
by  a  deceased  prelate,  present  at  least  in  the  flesh,  but 
the  ceremony  was  incomplete ;  a  corpse  could  not,  and 
no  one  present  could  for  it,  pronounce  the  sacramental 


RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  POPOVTSI.  £25 

words.  Every  effort,  for  well-nigh  two  hundred  years, 
had  proved  futile,  but  a  solution  of  tliis  grave  problem 
was  reached  at  last  during  the  troubled  revolutionary 
period  towards  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  and  it 
came  from  a  quarter  as  strange  as  it  was  unexpected. 

These  old  Muscovites,  the  most  conservative  and  reac- 
tionary of  the  population,  "  Russians,  sons  of  Russians," 
were,  by  a  singular  contradiction,  indebted  for  it  to  men 
with  whom  they  had  nothing  in  common,  who  were  bit- 
terly opposed  to  what  they  held  in  deepest  reverence. 
Their  new  auxiliaries  were,  primarily,  political  exiles 
from  Russia,  who  were  in  open  revolt  against  their  sov- 
ereign. They  were  aided  by  the  emissaries  of  radicalism 
and  revolution  throughout  Europe,  who  saw  in  the  Rus- 
sian emperor  the  chief  opponent  of  their  schemes. 

Tlie  Raskol  seemed  to  offer  a  fertile  field  for  their 
operations ;  its  multitudinous  ramifications  and  hidden 
affiliations  all  over  the  land  afforded  every  opportunity 
for  secret  plotting  and  intrigue.  Its  millions  of  adepts, 
although  intelligent  and  prosperous,  were  ignorant  and 
credulous,  enthusiastic  and  easily  excited  ;  they  were,  for 
the  most  part,  from  precept  and  education,  at  heart  hos- 
tile to  the  government,  and  would,  if  their  sympathies 
could  be  aroused,  prove  a  terrible  foe  to  the  authorita- 
tive and  autocratic  principle  personified  by  the  tsar. 
Actuated  by  these  ideas,  the  revolutionary  leaders  en- 
deavored to  unite  the  liberal  progressive  party  of  young 
Russia  with  the  old  ]\Iuscovite  conservatives,  but  these 
antagonistic  elements  could  not  harmonize;  they  were 
too  widely  at  variance ;  the  modern  scepticism,  or  athe- 
ism, of  the  radicals  shocked  the  profoundly  religious 
sentiments  of  the  Old  Believers ;  while,  from  a  political 
point  of  view,  they  could  never  agree,  and  the  attempt 
failed.  The  effort  was,  however,  suggestive,  and  shortly 
15 


22G       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

afterwards,  partisans  of  Polish  nationality  seized  upon 
the  idea  which  prompted  it  as  a  means  of  arousing  pow- 
erful opposition  to  the  oppressor  of  their  country's  hber- 
ties.  With  wider  views  and  a  better  compi^ehension  of 
the  situation,  they  not  only  saw  a  possible  nucleus  of  re- 
sistance among  the  Old  Believers,  but  they  also  devised 
a  way  of  rendering  it  available  for  their  purposes.  They 
conceived  the  bold  plan  of  creating,  for  these  schismatics, 
a  religious  centre  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  empire ; 
of  consolidating  the  various  elements  of  opposition  exist- 
ing in  the  numerous  discontented  and  disaifected  sects 
scattered  throughout  the  land,  by  provichng  for  them  a 
supreme  pontiff  Avhom  they  would  all  recognize  and  obey. 
They  expected,  by  thus  satisfying  their  ardent  and  long- 
deferred  aspirations  for  a  spiritual  head,  to  insure  their 
sympathy  and  connivance.  In  order  to  render  their  co- 
operation effectual,  and  to  make  it  subservient  to  the 
aims  of  the  Polish  party,  it  was  essential  that  this  pontiff 
should  have  his  seat  Avhere  he  would  be  safe  from  all  at- 
tempts of  the  imperial  government ;  and  that,  while  ap- 
parently free  to  exercise  independent  action,  he  should 
be  under  the  influence  and  control  of  the  insurrectionary 
leaders. 

They  commenced  operations  among  a  colony  of  Cos- 
sack Old  Believers,  situated  in  the  Dobrutscha,  near  the 
Russian  frontier,  who  had  emigrated  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  who  still  maintained  close  and  frequent  re- 
lations with  their  co-rehgionists  within  the  em])ire.  By 
exciting  hopes  of  a  re-establishment  of  their  ancient  faith, 
by  vague  and  illusory  promises  of  Cossack  independence, 
as  naturally  following  the  restoration  of  Polish  national- 
ity, their  confidence  was  gained,  and,  through  tliem,  the 
expectations  of  their  brethren  in  Russia  were  aroused. 

After  many  long  and  fruitless  researches  a  personage, 


HIERARCHY  OF  THE  POPOVTSI  ESTABLISHED.  227 

endowed  with  the  necessary  qualifications  and  willing 
to  accept  the  position,  was  discovered  among  the  Eastern 
prelates.  Ambrosius,  formerly  Primate  of  Bosnia,  re- 
centh'  deposed  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  con- 
sented to  adopt  the  creed  of  the  Old  BeUevers,  and  to 
become  their  head.  In  18i6  he  was  formally  installed 
as  metropolitan,  and  established  his  official  residence  in 
an  important  convent  of  their  community  at  Belo-Kri- 
nitsa  (Fontana-alba),  in  Bukovina,  a  province  of  Gallicia. 
The  situation,  at  a  point  where  the  three  great  Slavo- 
nic empires  meet,  was  well  chosen.  It  lies  within  Aus- 
trian territory,  and  Austria  was  not  sorry  to  have  with- 
in its  grasp  this  thorn  in  the  Russian  side,  wherewith  to 
counteract  or  retaliate  for  Russian  intrigues  among  her 
Slavonic  population.  After  many  vicissitudes,  depend- 
ing on  the  shifting  pofitical  relations  of  the  two  empires, 
Ambrosius  finally  secured  tranquil  possession  of  his  ec- 
clesiastical throne.  liis  authority  was  speedily  acknowl- 
edged by  the  Old  Behevers  in  Austria  and  Turkey ;  in 
Russia  there  was  more  hesitation,  but,  notwithstanding 
the  repugnance  of  some  of  the  more  conservative  to  ac- 
cept a  foreigner,  or,  as  they  styled  him,  "  a  priest  from 
beyond  the  sea,"  as  their  spiritual  chief,  he  was  formally 
so  recognized  by  the  leaders  of  the  Raskol  at  Rogojski, 
and  by  the  great  body  of  their  followers. 

His  first  step  was  the  creation  of  a  regular  episcopate. 
He  divided  the  empire  into  dioceses,  and  appointed  bish- 
ops subject  to  his  authority,  as  in  England  the  ])ope  of 
Rome  established  a  Catholic  hierarchy,  independent  of 
the  English  government. 

These  schismatic  prelates  and  their  priests,  kno^vTi  to 
the  initiated  only,  are  active  and  zealous  emissaries ; 
they  officiate  in  secret  and  in  disguise,  Avander  freely 
over  the  land,  protected  by  the  devotion  of  their  adhe- 


228       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

rents,  or,  if  detected,  easily  purchasing  immunity  from 
venal  officials  with  the  abundant  resources  at  their  com- 
mand. 

Danger  to  Russia  was  apprehended  from  the  existence, 
beyond  the  control  of  its  government,  of  an  irresponsible 
power,  wielding  such  extensive  authority  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  population,  and  it  formed  the  subject  of 
frequent  remonstrance  and  of  much  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence Avith  Austria.  It  was  a  constant  annoyance 
to  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  whose  haughty  spirit  could  ill 
brook  the  slight  to  his  authority.  He  was  angered  that 
his  determination  to  stamp  out  Dissent  should  be  thwart- 
ed by  this  insignificant  chief  of  a  despised  sect,  whose 
adherents  were  an  ignorant  mob  of  peasants  and  serfs. 
Opposition  on  their  part  to  his  attempts  to  Russianize 
Poland  Avas  feared  by  him,  and  expected  by  the  Poles, 
but  both  were  disappointed;  the  loyalty  of  the  Old 
Believers  to  the  tsar  proved  stronger  than  their  grat- 
itude to  the  Polish  patriots,  and,  as  apprehensions  from 
this  source  disappeared,  the  existence  of  a  schismatic 
pontiff  was  disregarded.  Ambrosius,  alternately  sup- 
pressed, ignored,  and  tolerated  by  Austria,  as  circum- 
stances dictated,  died  in  possession  of  his  ecclesiastical 
dignity.  Cyril,  a  Russian,  succeeded,  and,  during  the 
Crimean  war,  disaffection,  possibly  overt  resistance  to 
imperial  authority,  was  feared,  but  again  patriotism  and 
national  sentiment  rose  superior  to  ceremonial  differ- 
ences, and  the  Old  Believers  recognized  in  the  Turks  the 
traditional  enemy  of  Orthodoxy  and  holy  Russia. 

The  accession  of  Alexander  II.  aroused  hopes  of  a 
brighter  future.  The  elders  of  Rogojski  induced  their 
metropolitan  to  visit  his  flock ;  he  came  to  Russia  in  1863, 
disguised  and  secretly,  but  probably  with  the  connivance 
of  the  government. 


THE  POPOVTSI;  DISSENSIONS;  THEIR  LOYALTY.  229 

A  council,  under  his  direction,  established  regulations 
for  the  Popo\i;si,  and  this  branch  of  the  Raskol,  thus  pro- 
vided with  a  regular  hierarchy  and  a  complete  organizer 
tion,  seemed  definitively  constituted  as  an  independent 
and  united  Church.  Dissensions,  however,  soon  arose ;  the 
new  clergy,  less  docile  than  their  renegade  predecessors, 
resented  the  domination  of  the  lay  element  in  the  com- 
munity, and  arrogated  to  themselves  an  authority  which 
the  congregations  were  reluctant  to  acknowledge.  The 
council,  from  prudential  motives,  maintained  Eelo-Kjri- 
nitsa  as  the  seat  of  the  pontiff,  but  appointed  a  vicar  to 
reside  in  Russia  as  his  representative ;  the  metropolitan, 
suspicious,  and  apprehensive  of  diminution  of  his  dignity, 
refused  to  delegate  his  powers  to  a  vicegerent.  I>\^  this 
conflict  of  authority  Popovtsism  was,  ere  its  organiza- 
tion had  attained  full  maturity,  threatened  with  internal 
divisions. 

In  the  midst  of  these  dissensions  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion of  1803  broke  out,  and  the  Old  Believers  again  fell 
under  suspicion,  and  were  threatened  with  the  harsh  treat- 
ment which  doubtful  allegiance  would  merit.  They  in- 
dignantly repudiated  the  charges  of  treachery  and  trea- 
son, and  eagerly  offered  pledges  of  their  loyalty  "  to  God 
and  the  Tsar."  They  sent  Cyril  back  to  his  foreign  home, 
and  the  council  proposed  to  cease,  for  a  time,  all  relations 
with  him.  Their  leaders  at  Pogojski  addressed  the  em- 
peror Avith  assurances  of  their  fidelity,  and  issued  an  en- 
cyclical letter  to  all  members  of  the  "Holy  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church  of  the  Old  Believers,"  Avith  an  exposi- 
tion of  their  doctrines  calculated  to  conciHate  the  au- 
thorities of  the  established  Church  and  of  the  State,  de- 
claring that "  the  Old  Believers  who  recognize  the  neces- 
sity of  a  priesthood  agree  in  all  questions  of  dogma  Avith 
the  Greco-Russian  Church  ;  they  Avorship  the  same  God, 


230      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

believe  in  the  same  Jesus  Christ,  and  are  truly  more  in 
accord  with  the  national  Church  than  are  all  sects  who 
reject  the  priesthood."  They  anathematized  revolution- 
ists as  "  enemies  of  religion  and  of  country,"  as  "  children 
of  the  impious  Voltaire ;"  and  affirmed  that  the  official 
Church  and  that  of  the  Old  Believers,  being  in  harmony 
on  all  fundamental  points,  may  exist,  side  by  side,  in  mu- 
tual toleration  and  Christian  brotherhood. 

These  declarations  at  this  critical  period  were  gladly 
welcomed  by  the  emperor  and  the  Holy  Synod,  and 
aroused  hopes  of  eventual  agreement  and  reunion. 

Language  of  this  tenor,  held  by  the  descendants  of  the 
stern  enthusiasts  who,  two  centuries  previously,  had 
held  both  Church  and  State  to  be  accursed,  indicates 
the  great  change  that  had  taken  place  among  the  mem- 
bers of  this  branch  of  the  Easkol. 

There  were  still  among  them  some  who  fanatically 
adhered  to  their  ancient  prejudices,  and,  on  the  subject 
of  the  circular  published  by  their  leaders,  the  Popovtsi 
were  divided ;  by  far  the  greater  number,  and  the  more 
intelligent,  known  as  the  "  Okroujniki,"  or  "  Circular- 
ists,"  approved  of  it ;  the  minority,  comprising  the  more 
ignorant  and  obstinate,  called  the  "  Kazdorniki,"  or 
"  those  who  quarrel,"  maintained  the  primitive  doctrines 
of  the  schism,  and  renewed  the  controversy  upon  the 
spelling  of  the  name  Jesus,  stoutly  averring  that  the 
"  Christ  lissous  "  of  the  State  Church  could  not  be  the 
same  divine  person  as  the  "  Christ  Issous "  of  tlie  Old 
Believers,  and  must  be  Antichrist. 

A  second  council,  convened  at  Belo-Iirinitsa,  served 
only  to  further  embitter  the  discussion,  to  weaken  the 
authority  of  their  primate,  and  to  detach  from  their  body 
many  of  its  influential  partisans. 

Under  these  circumstances,  with  an  evident  desire  on 


DESIRE  FOR  UNION.— THE  EDINOYERTSI.  231 

either  side  for  reconciliation,  a  speedy  end  to  Popovts- 
ism,  by  its  absorption  into  the  Mother  Church,  might 
seem  probable,  but  many  obstacles  still  intervene,  and 
chief  among  them  is  the  difficulty  of  satisfying  their 
rival  pretensions. 

Old  Believers  insist  upon  the  ancient  rites ;  they  fur- 
ther demand  that,  having  been  condemned  by  a  council, 
they  shall,  with  equal  solemnity,  be  absolved  by  a  coun- 
cil, and  acknowledged  to  have  ever  been  steadfast  in  the 
Orthodox  faith  ;  the  Holy  Synod  might  yield,  as  regards 
ceremonies  and  verbal  differences,  but,  as  to  the  graver 
question  of  doctrine,  it  exacts  submission,  recognition  of 
error  in  the  past,  and  repentance,  before  it  can  allow  the 
Church  to  receive  them  back  into  full  communion. 

A  similar  desire  on  the  part  of  the  State  and  of  the 
Synod  to  end  and  heal  the  schism  in  the  Church  was 
evinced  during  the  tolerant  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  tow- 
ards the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  order  to 
restore  unity  and  bring  Dissenters  back  to  their  alle- 
giance, they  were  ready  with  every  concession  possible. 
The  ritual  in  use  before  the  days  of  Nikon  was  ac- 
knowledged to  be  canonical,  and  priests  were  specially 
ordained  to  officiate  in  accordance  with  it.  Some  of  the 
Old  Believers,  less  imbued  with  prejudice,  or  more  tole- 
rant in  matters  of  conscience,  yielded  to  the  earnest  ap- 
peals and  exhortations  of  the  clergy,  supported  by  the 
influence  and  authority  of  the  government,  and  were 
enrolled  alongside,  as  it  were,  of  the  Orthodox  in  regu- 
lar standing,  as  belonging  to  a  branch  of  the  established 
Church,  under  the  appellation  of  "  Edinovertsi,"  or 
"  Uniate  Believers."  ' 

Had  a  similar  step  been  taken  when  Alexis  was  on 


From  edin,  one,  and  vera,  faith. 


232       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

the  throne  it  might  have  stifled  the  Easkol  at  its  birth  ; 
nearly  all  that  had  been  demanded  originally  was  ac- 
corded, but  it  could  no  longer  suffice.  A  century  and 
more  had  passed — long  years  of  struggling,  persecution, 
and  suffering ;  Dissent  had  crystallized  and  hardened 
into  schism,  with  habits  of  independence  and  of  free 
inquiry ;  it  had  become  impatient  of  control,  with  an  in- 
dividuahty  of  its  own,  social  and  poUtical,  as  well  as  re- 
hgious,  and  a  deeper  principle  than  one  of  mere  cere- 
mony was  at  stake.  The  sincerity  of  those  in  power 
was  doubted ;  Old  Eitualists,  now  Old  Believers  and 
schismatics,  feared  the  Church  and  the  gifts  it  proffered. 

Catherine's  plan  was  in  many  respects  aldn  to  that  of 
the  pope  when  he  created  the  Greek  Uniate  Church  as 
a  middle  ground  between  the  creeds  of  Moscow  and 
Eome,  with  the  Jesuitical  hope,  in  either  case,  that,  hav- 
ing traversed  half  the  distance  separating  Catholicism, 
or  the  Easkol,  from  Orthodoxy,  the  semi-convert  might 
be  easily  induced  to  complete  the  journey. 

The  restrictions  imposed  upon  the  Edinovertsi  were 
the  most  obvious  hinderances  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
sect.  It  could  not  be  recruited  from  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  established  Church,  of  whom  many  were  in 
secret  sympathy  Avith  Dissent,  but  might  have  been  sat- 
isfied with  this  intermediate  creed,  inasmuch  as  secession 
from  the  Orthodox  communion  was  absolutely  prohib- 
ited ;  it  was  not  acceptable  to  the  great  body  of  those 
who  openly  professed  to  be  Old  Believers,  on  account  of 
its  halting,  temporizing  character,  and  of  the  incom- 
pleteness of  its  organization.  The  Greek  Uniate  Church, 
to  which  it  has  been  compared  above,  had  owed  its  suc- 
cess in  a  large  degree  not  merely  to  a  special  liturgy  and 
ritual,  but  also  to  the  possession  of  a  regular  and  inde- 
pendent hierarchy ;  to  Edinovertsism  no  episcopate  was 


PRESENT  ASPECT  OF  POPOVTSISM. 


233 


allowed,  and  its  priests  were  ordained  by,  and  subordi- 
nate to,  the  bishops  of  the  established  Church  ;  they  con- 
sequently inspired  neither  confidence  nor  respect,  but 
rather  suspicion  and  dislike,  as  the  paid  functionaries  of 
an  alien,  if  not  a  hostile,  authority,  and  the  denomination 
itself  occupied  an  inferior,  uncertain,  and  humiliating 
position,  being  neither  one  thing  nor  the  other. 

The  real  and  most  serious  obstacle  to  its  success  was 
the  radical  change  wrought  by  time  in  the  principle  and 
spirit  of  this  branch  of  the  Kaskol,  and  which  also  af- 
fords an  explanation  of  its  persistent  vitality.  It  was  no 
longer  a  mere  sticlding  for  ancient  form  and  ceremony  ; 
it  had  become,  what  it  now  actually  is,  the  expression 
of  popular  resistance  to  the  enforced  union  of  civil  and 
religious  government,  to  the  absolute  dependence  of  the 
Church  upon  the  State. 

Old  Believers,  accustomed  by  long  habit  to  freedom 
from  clerical  authority,  favor  the  separation  of  the  spirit- 
ual from  the  temporal.  While  they  dejnand  the  ancient 
rites  and  former  ecclesiastical  constitution,  with  a  nation- 
al patriarch  as  supreme  head  of  the  Church,  they  do  so 
with  a  keen  sense  of  the  importance  of  restricting  cleri- 
cal power  within  due  bounds,  and  of  giving  the  lay  por- 
tion of  the  community  its  just  and  proportionate  share 
in  the  administration  of  the  Church, 

Their  ideal  would  seem  to  be  a  national,  popular,  and 
democratic  establishment,  imited  and  strong,  but  inde- 
pendent and  free  from  government  interference ;  its  af- 
fairs under  the  charge  of,  and  its  clergy  chosen  by,  all  its 
members  acting  in  concert. 

With  these  aspirations,  and  from  this  point  of  view, 
Popovtsism,  or  the  Easkol  of  the  priestly  branch,  can 
no  longer  be  deemed  a  petty,  sectarian,  or  unreasonable 
movement ;  it  becomes  an  object  of  universal  interest, 


234       THE  RUSSIAN  CHUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

and  is  entitled  to  respectful  consideration  and  earnest 
study  from  all  who,  without  as  well  as  within  the  em- 
pire, sympathize  with  the  progress  of  liberal  ideas. 

It  has  been  and  is  vastly  more  difficult,  if  it  be  not 
impossible,  for  the  Bezpopovtsi  than  for  the  Popovtsi  to 
jarrive  at  any  definite  ecclesiastical  organization.  The 
/'fundamental  principle  of  their  doctrine,  by  destroying 
all  faith  in  the  sacerdotal  character  of  the  clergy  and  in 
the  existence  of  a  priesthood,  or  of  a  Church  u])on  earth, 
seems  to  preclude  all  hope  of  any  such  result. 

They  are  deprived  of  all  spiritual  bond  of  union  among 
themselves,  acknowledge  no  authority  as  guide,  nor  any 
restraint  upon  individual  opinion.  They  claim  for  each 
the  right  of  free  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
the  exercise  of  this  liberty,  together  with  the  habit  of 
inquiry  which  it  engenders,  has  led  them  to  wander 
from  the  dogmas  of  Orthodox  behef,  or,  if  retaining 
them  in  theory,  to  accept  such  explanations  of  them  as 
suit  the  wildest  fancies  and  vagaries  of  the  imagination. 

Their  sects  have  become  innumerable,  ever  shifting 
and  varying,  undergoing  constant  change  and  transfor- 
mation, with  incessant  divisions  and  subdivisions ;  new 
ones  spring  into  existence  as  the  old  cUe  out,  affording 
evidence  of  the  vitality  and  energy  animating  the  move- 
ment.. They  recognize  no  ministers  save  their  elders  or 
"  readers,"  who,  chosen  by  themselves,  are  generally  vir- 
tuous and  worthy  men,  well,  and  sometimes  deeply,  versed 
in  Scriptural  knowledge ;  but  frequently  most  extraor- 
dinary, even  monstrous,  caprice  governs  their  selection. 
Yulgar,  loudly  self-asserting  fanatics  impose  themselves 
upon  a  congregation,  or,  under  the  influence  of  sensual 
and  erotic  excitement,  which,  among  ignorant  communi- 
ties where  self-indulgence  is  unrestrained,  often  accom- 
panies excessive  religious  exaltation,  females  of  vile  and 


CEREMONIES  OF  THE  BEZPOPOVTSI. 


235 


profligate  character  are  accepted  as  inspired  prophet- 
esses. 

Their  leaders  have  considerable  influence  over  their 
followers,  but  exercise  no  priestly  functions  save  bap- 
tism. Their  form  of  Avorship  is  simple  and  elementary  ; 
the  Bible  is  read  and  expounded,  or,  in  the  absence  of  a 
teacher,  the  congregation  awaits  in  silence  and  obscurity 
for  a  manifestation  of  the  spirit.  To  this  Quakerlike 
simphcity  and  absence  of  ceremony  the  Bezpopovtsi  join 
scrupulous  regard  for  the  devotional  practices  of  the 
primitive  Church ;  they  strictly  observe  the  fasts,  and 
hold  the  holy  images  and  relics  in  superstitious  venera- 
tion ;  they  retain  the  sign  of  the  cross,  repeating  it  in 
their  prayers  very  many  times,  according  to  the  ancient 
Kussian  method,  and  they  perform  assiduously  the  "  pok- 
loni,"  or  saluations  before  the  Icons. 

Inasmuch  as  their  service  is  stripped  of  most  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Church,  they  attach  the  more  impor- 
tance to  such  as  they  have  retained,  investing  them  with 
peculiar  significance.  Certain  sects  ordain  the  perform- 
ance of  a  hundred  "  pokloni,"  for  the  purification  of  food, 
two  hundred  at  a  funeral ;  they  impose  upon  a  neophyte 
two  thousand  a  day  for  six  weeks,  with  the  addition  of 
twenty  full  prostrations  each  week.  They  have  a  holy 
horror  of  tobacco,  sugar,  and  coffee,  and  avoid  certain 
dishes,  the  flesh  of  unclean  animals,  such  as  the  hare  and 
the  pigeon.  They  seem  thus  to  find  compensation  for 
the  rejection  of  the  spiritual  rites  of  the  Church  in  slav- 
ish and  exaggerated  compliance  with  the  more  gross  and 
materialistic. 

Although  they  have  no  priests,  they  have  monks  and 
nuns,  who  dwell  in  "  skeets,"  or  hermitages,  under  strict 
and  rigorous  rules,  holding  their  property  in  common, 
and  are  subject  to  the  authority  of  a  superior,  charged 


236       THE  KUSSIAN  CUURCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

■tvith  the  fidministration  of  the  interests  of  the  commu- 
nity. Their  first  important  establishment  of  this  nature, 
and  from  which  most  of  the  others  issued,  was  the  con- 
vent of  Vygoretsk,  founded  in  1094,  near  Lake  Onega. 
From  the  earliest  days  of  the  Raskol  the  Bezpopovtsi 
have  been  very  numerous  in  the  region  of  the  great 
lakes  and  along  the  shores  of  the  "White  Sea.  When,  in 
the  reign  of  Alexis,  they  were  dislodged  from  their 
stronghold  at  Solovetsk,  they  spread  throughout  the 
country  to  the  north  and  east  under  the  general  designa- 
tion of  "  Pomortsi,"  or  "  Dwellers  by  the  sea-shore ;"  at 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  several  of  their  de- 
tached colonies  settled  along  the  banks  of  the  river  Yyg, 
and  within  a  few  years  they  were  united  in  one  commu- 
nity by  the  efforts  of  two  brothers  named  Denisoff,  men 
of  great  administrative  ability  and  earnestness,  under 
whose  wise  government  and  direction  they  ra]Didly  in- 
creased in  numbers  and  wealth  until  their  establishment 
at  V3'goretsk  became  the  most  important  centre  of  this 
branch  of  the  Raskol.  Divisions  soon  arose  among  them, 
as  the  inevitable  result  of  the  freedom  they  accord  to 
personal  opinion,  and  about  1732  a  small  number  seceded 
from  the  main  body  under  Feodocei,  formerly  a  dea- 
con of  the  Church,  and  Avho  died  soon  afterwards  in 
prison.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  secession  was  a  par- 
tial reconcihation  of  the  majority  with  the  State  govern- 
ment during  the  reign  of  the  empress  Anna ;  they  con- 
sented to  acknowledge  her  imperial  authority,  and  to 
make  mention  of  her  as  tsarina  in  their  pra^-ers.  This 
concession  shocked  the  principles  of  the  more  fanatic, 
who  withdrew,  anathematized  their  weaker  brethren, 
and  maintained  their  opposition  to  the  sovereign  as  An- 
tichrist. 

The  stern  enthusiasm  of  these  Feodocians,  so  called 


BEZPOPOVTSI;  RECONCILIATION  DIFFICULT.  237 

after  their  leader,  gave  them  pre-eminence  among  the 
Bezpopo\i;si ;  about  1772  they  founded  the  establishment 
of  Praobrajenski  at  Moscow,  which,  under  their  skilful 
and  energetic  administration,  became  even  more  power- 
ful than  the  neighboring  institution  of  the  Popovtsi  at 
Rogojski.  The  more  dangerous  doctrines  of  these  vio- 
lent sectarians,  and  the  greater  prosperity  attending 
their  efforts,  rendered  them  more  hable  to  the  jealous 
hostility  of  the  public  and  to  the  suspicions  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Praobrajenski  fell,  as  did  Eogojsld  immedi- 
ately afterwards ;  its  funds  were  confiscated ;  its  council 
was  placed  under  official  supervision ;  its  religious  edi- 
fices were  purified  and  handed  over  to  the  clergy  of  the 
national  Church  ;  only  the  hospitals  and  cemeteries  were 
left  to  the  schismatics. 

Keconciliation  between  the  Bezpopo\i;si  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  established  Church  and  imperial  govern- 
ment on  the  other,  is  stiD,  as  in  the  past,  rendered  more 
difficult  than  for  the  Popovtsi,  by  the  double  antagonism 
which  exists,  by  apparently  insurmountable  obstacles  of 
both  a  religious  and  political  character. 

Eejection  of  the  priesthood  and  of  the  sacraments 
means  utter  condemnation  of  the  whole  Church,  and 
leads  to  consequences  totally  at  variance  with  Cliristian- 
ity,  and  subversive  of  all  moral  principle.  Belief  in  the 
advent  of  Antichrist,  and  in  his  personal  reign,  inevitably 
results  in  hostility  to  existing  institutions,  in  revolution, 
and  in  anarchy. 

How  to  rightly  comprehend  the  two-sided  nature  of 
their  own  doctrines,  and  to  adjust  them  to  the  duties  and 
exigencies  of  daily  life,  is  the  great  problem  Avhich  agi- 
tates and  divides  the  numerous  sects  of  the  Bezpopovtsi, 
and  the  question  for  the  government  is  not  less  grave  or 
embarrassing.    How  can  heretics  and  rebels,  of  whom 


238       THE  RUSSLVN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

some,  like  the  Philippovtsi,  have  preferred  self-immola- 
tion in  flames  to  submission,  or,  like  the  Stranniki,  have 
abjured  all  civil  restraints  rather  than  risk  contamination 
with  an  accursed  world,  and  who,  all,  have  for  centuries 
denounced  the  Church,  and  preached  resistance  to  the 
emperor,  reviling  him  as  the  impersonation  of  Satan,  ever 
be  rendered  peaceful,  law-abiding  subjects,  or  be  even  tol- 
erated in  a  civilized  community  ? 

Time,  however,  softens  asperities,  and  diminishes  mor- 
al distances  and  differences ;  common  interests  suggest 
compromises ;  necessity  imposes  restraints ;  the  bitter 
passions,  aroused  by  persecution,  are  soothed  by  the 
milder  spirit  of  modern  civilization ;  and  the  fierce  logic 
of  fanaticism  yields  to  the  persuasive  influences  of  tol- 
eration and  forbearance.  There  are  but  very  few  of 
the  Bezpopovtsi  of  to-day  who  still  cling  to  the  strict 
letter  of  their  creed,  and  regard  their  sovereign  as  the 
vicar  of  Satan,  and  the  incarnation  of  evil.  Some  ex- 
plain the  reign  of  Antichrist  in  a  spiritual  sense,  oth- 
ers wait  for  fuller  manifestations  of  his  presence,  and 
all  obey  existing  laws  without  troubling  their  con- 
sciences as  to  the  source  from  which  they  emanate. 
The  very  men  who  profess  to  believe  that  the  earth  is 
under  the  dominion  of  the  devil  are,  in  point  of  fact,  gen- 
erally as  orderly,  sober,  and  discreet  members  of  society 
as  their  neighbors,  who  acknowledge  the  ever-present 
power  of  the  Lord,  and  an  overruling  divine  Providence. 

The  government,  desirous  of  reconciliation,  satisfied 
with  obedience  to  the  laws  and  tacit  recognition  of  its 
authority,  became  tolerant,  and  ceased  to  harass  or  vex 
peaceful  subjects  on  abstract  matters  of  belief ;  it  re- 
quired, however,  as  evidence  of  loyalty,  and  as  acknowl- 
edgment of  its  supremacy,  that  schismatics  should,  like 
the  Orthodox,  make  public  mention  of  the  sovereign  in 


PRIXCIPLES  MODIFIED  BY  TIME. 


239 


the  prayers  of  their  service.  On  this  score  it  has  been 
content  with  partial  acquiescence.  The  suppUcation  of 
the  national  Church  for  the  emperor  is  long,  minutely 
designating  each  member  of  the  imperial  famil}^,  with 
repeated  invocations  for  the  "  very  pious,  very  faith- 
ful" emperor,  "Defender  of  Orthodoxy,"  "Head  of  the 
Church ;"  laying  stress  on  his  titles  as  spiritual  chief  as 
well  as  temporal  lord.  The  recognition  of  his  qualities, 
in  this  respect,  has  always  been,  and  is,  especially  obnox- 
ious to  the  Bezpopovtsi. 

When  Anna  proposed  to  send  a  high  commissioner  to 
visit  their  colonies  on  the  River  Yyg,  and  bestow  upon 
them  marks  of  her  imperial  favor,  they  were  desirous  of 
evincing  their  sense  of  her  gracious  condescension,  and 
agreed  to  comply  with  the  custom  of  her  other  subjects, 
and  introduce  the  name  of  the  sovereif^n  iu  their  reliir- 
ious  services.  They  could  not,  however,  accept  the  es- 
tablished formula,  or  recognize  the  sacred  appellations  of 
"  Orthodox  "  and  "  Head  of  the  Church  ;"  nor  could  they 
sanction  the  use  of  the  foreign  and  impious  designation 
of  "  Emperor ;"  but  they  consented  to  offer  up  prayers 
for  their  ruler  under  the  national  and  venerated  title  of 
"  Tsar."  A  minority  of  their  number  refused  to  make 
even  this  concession,  and,  headed  by  Feodocei,  seceded 
from  the  main  body  and  maintained  their  opposition  to 
imperial  authority.  Time  lias,  however,  for  the  great 
majority,  triumphed  over  the  severity  of  their  principles, 
as  well  as  over  their  prejudices  ;  and  tlie  elders  of  Prao- 
brajenski,  the  headquarters  of  the  obstinate  Feodocians, 
have,  like  the  Old  Believers  of  Rogojski,  sent  loyal  ad- 
dresses and  presents  to  the  emperor  and  his  children. 

The  loyalty  of  these  sectarians  has  been  severely  tried 
in  more  recent  days,  during  tlie  Nihilist  movement,  but 
it  has  never  Avavered.    Nihihst  writers  acknowledge 


240      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

that  there  is  no  way  to  influence  them  to  active  revo- 
lutionary protest  against  their  oppressors." 

There  yet  remains  between  the  civil  authority,  or 
rather  between  society  at  large  and  the  Bezpopovtsi,  the 
question  of  marriage  and  of  family  ties.  AVith  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  sacerdotal  class  the  sacrament  of  marriage 
was  abrogated ;  this  doctrine  is  common  to  all  the  sects, 
and  its  conception  and  apphcation  is  the  chief  source  of 
differences  among  them. 

Is  marriage  absolutely  prohibited,  and  celibacy  obhg- 
atory  upon  all,  or  may  not  some  remedy  be  devised? 
Every  conceivable  variety  of  opinion  has  found  advo- 
cates. The  most  reasonable  and  moderate  recognize  a 
conjugal  tie,  which  may  be  created  by  the  blessing  of 
parents,  and  sanctified  by  kissing  the  cross  and  the  Bible 
in  presence  of  the  family  and  of  each  other.  This  form 
of  oath  is,  for  the  Russian,  the  most  solemn  that  can  be 
administered.  Others  hold  that  the  mutual  assent  of  the 
bridegroom  and  bride  constitutes  a  marriage  which  is 
vahd,  but  only  while  this  mutual  assent  exists.  Love 
being  in  its  essence  divine,  union  of  hearts  can  alone  au- 
thorize union  of  lives ;  and  this  estate  is  holy  so  long 
only  as  it  is  consecrated  by  mutual  affection.  Ties,  thus 
easily  formed,  are  often  durable,  for  the  reason  that  they 
are  so  fragile.  A  simple  mode  of  life,  earnest  moral  and 
religious  convictions,  the  force  of  habit,  and  the  existence 
of  interests  in  common,  tend  greatly  to  mitigate  the  evils 
attendant  upon  a  union  which  mere  caprice  may  dissolve ; 
but,  notwithstanding  this,  and  in  spite  of  the  glamour  of 
fine  phrases  and  of  eloquent  disquisitions  upon  the  ele- 
vating and  purifying  influences  of  free  love,  such  a  con- 
dition of  things  is  in  itself  vicious  and  the  cause  of  vice. 
Human  nature  is  weak,  and  carnal  passions  are  strong 
among  simple  peasants,  as  well  as  in  more  civilized  com- 
munities, and  give  rise  to  similar  abuses. 


MARRIAGE  A:M0XG  THE  BEZPOPOVTSI.  241 

"WTiile  Easkolniks  are  justly  considered  as  the  most 
honest,  frugal,  sober,  and  industrious  of  the  Russian  peo- 
ple, in  all  the  ordinary  avocations  of  life,  they  are,  in  all 
that  relates  to  the  intercourse  of  the  sexes,  held,  with 
equal  justice,  to  bo  the  most  immoral.  But  this  is  not 
the  worst  feature  of  the  case ;  free  love  and  free  divorce 
are  among  the  lesser  evils  which  flow  from  their  opin- 
ions ;  more  deplorable  still  are  the  consequences  arismg 
from  doctrines  which  have  been  inculcated  by  the  more 
rigid  of  their  sects,  especially  by  the  Feodocians  of  Prao- 
brajenski,  who  have  held  that  all  connection  of  the  sexes 
is  unlawful,  inasmuch  as  nothing  can  replace  the  lost 
sacrament.  Their  creed  is  concisely  enunciated,  "  Zshe- 
naty,  raz  zshenis ;  ne  zshenaty,  ne  zshenis  " — "  Being  mar- 
ried, get  unmarried  ;  not  married,  never  marry."  Or,  as 
a  popular  catechism  states  it,  "  The  youth  should  never 
take  wife,  the  husband  should  never  possess  the  wife ; 
the  maiden  should  never  marry,  the  wife  should  never 
bear  children."  Those  who  infringed  this  command- 
ment, and  were  convicted  of  having  had  children,  were 
ignoininiously  expelled  from  the  community,  or  were 
subjected  to  severe  and  humiliating  penance.  Adhe- 
rence to  such  maxuns  was,  in  the  nature  of  things,  im- 
possible, and  those  Avho  sinned  had  strong  inducement  to 
conceal  or  suppress  the  evidence  of  their  guilt.  Infanti- 
cide was  a  frequent  reproach,  substantiated  by  the  dis- 
covery of  bodies  of  newly-born  children  in  draining 
ponds,  and  by  the  bribery  of  officials  to  prevent  sim- 
ilar measures  when  they  were  contemplated.'  Occur- 
rences of  this  nature  were  recorded  often  in  provinces 
where  the  I>ezpopo\i;si  were  numerous.  Although  these 
accusations  Avere  strenuously  denied,  they  were  natural 


'  "Le  Raskol,"  p.  06;  Haxthausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  2C3. 

16 


242     THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent. 

consequences  of  the  ferocious  doctrine  that  "  when  a 
child  is  conceived,  its  soul  comes  not  from  God  the  Cre- 
ator, but  from  the  Devil." 

No  community,  of  steadily  increasing  numbers,  could, 
while  ])rofessing  such  abominable  principles,  remain 
united.  Many  sects  seceded  from  the  main  body  to 
adopt  more  rational  views  of  the  married  state,  hardly 
advancing,  however,  beyond  an  authorized  concubinage ; 
the  weaker  brethren,  called  "  Novozsheny,"  or  the  "  Ke- 
marrying,"  were  driven  forth  from  the  fold  with  con- 
tumely and  insult;  the  rigid  apostles  of  celibacy,  con- 
doners  of  libertinism,  severed  all  intercourse  with  them, 
and  would  neither  sit  at  the  same  table  nor  sleep  under 
the  same  roof. 

Under  the  modifying  influences  of  time  and  civiliza- 
tion these  demorahzing  and  horrible  doctrines,  relics  of 
a  barbarous  age,  are  no  longer  openly  espoused.  At 
Praobrajenski,  the  ancient  stronghold  of  radical  Dissent, 
they  are  rejected,  and  that  they  have  ever  been  advo- 
cated, is  indignantly  denied.  "While  there  is  ample  evi- 
dence of  the  contrary  in  the  past,  their  repudiation  at 
the  present  day  is  indicative  of  the  moral  regeneration 
in  progress. 

Unhapj^ily  the  purification  of  the  empire  is  not  com- 
plete, and  the  strange,  unnatural  heresies  of  the  old 
Feodocians  still  retain  their  hold  upon  a  few  extreme 
sects,  who  find  recruits  among  the  most  abject  of  the 
population.  The  most  numerous  of  these  deluded  fanat- 
ics are  the  "Stranniki,"  or  "  Wanderers,"  also  called  the 
"Begouni,"  or  "  Fugitives,"  Avho  assume,  themselves,  the 
name  of  "  Pilgrims."  Belief  in  the  actual  personal  reign 
of  Antichrist,  and  in  the  bodily  presence  of  Satan  upon 
eai'th,  is  the  base  and  corner-stone  of  their  doctrine. 

This  sect  sprang  into  existence  during  a  spasmodic  re- 


THE  STRANNIKI,  OR  WANDERERS. 


243 


yival  of  Bezpopo\i;sisin,  kindled  by  the  vigorous  repress- 
ive measures  of  the  government  at  the  time  of  Pouga- 
tchev's  rebellion,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Its  founder  was  a  soldier  named  Efim,  who  de- 
serted from  the  army  and  found  refuge  in  a  convent  of 
the  Feodocians,  situated  in  the  wilds  of  Olonetz.  He 
turned  monk,  became  involved  in  disputes  with  his  supe- 
riors, and  appealed  to  Praobrajenski  for  redress ;  his 
complaint  was  rejected,  Avhereupon  he  announced  him- 
self as  the  apostle  of  a  new  creed,  and  Avent  forth  preach- 
ing the  absolute  renunciation  of  all  social  ties  and  obU- 
gations,  taking  for  his  text  the  words  of  the  Saviour, 
"  to  leave  father  and  mother,  son  and  daughter,  to  take 
up  the  cross  and  follow  me"  (Matthew  x.,  3G-38). 
Practical  application  of  this  allegorical  precejit  soon  de- 
generated into  vagrancy,  and  worse.  His  followers,  ab- 
solved from  all  restraint,  social  and  moral,  in  open  war- 
fare with  all  constituted  authority,  shunning  all  manner 
of  work  as  sinful,  lived  by  mendicancy,  and,  when  that 
failed,  by  theft ;  their  ranks  were  swelled  by  vagabonds 
and  ruffians,  ready  to  embrace  a  faith  so  much  in  accord- 
ance with  their  ideas.  Pillage,  robbery,  even  murder,  to 
secure  means  of  subsistence,  were  sanctioned,  or  incul- 
cated as  religious  duties.  They  made  friends  and  pros- 
elytes among  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  population, 
chiefly  in  Kostroma  and  Yaroslav,  where  they  terrified 
the  peasantry  by  their  threats,  or  imposed  upon  tliem  by 
claims  of  peculiar  sanctity  and  self-abnegation.  Their 
mode  of  procedure  was  calculated  to  impress  the  excita- 
ble imaginations  of  the  country  people  dwelling  in  the 
solitary  depths  of  the  forest ;  they  would  mysteriously,  at 
night,  gather  round  a  lonely  hut  and,  unseen  in  the  dark- 
ness, chant  devotional  hymns  in  a  solemn,  melancholy 
strain,  and  appeal  to  ancient  Slavonic  hospitality,  invok- 


244  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ing  curses  upon  the  liousebolil  that  should  deny  them 
charity.  Often  the  sim])le-niindc(l  boor,  carried  away 
by  his  fears  and  crazed  fancies,  would  abandon  home, 
family,  and  all,  to  join  these  self-ap])ointed  saints." 

They  gave  a  literal  interpretation  to  the  words  of  the 
Gospel,  and  renounced  the  world ;  they  would  have  no 
abode,  own  no  ])roperty,  acknowledge  no  law,  no  alle- 
giance, no  obligation,  and  justified  their  rupture  with 
society  on  the  pica  that  Satan  ruled  supreme.  They 
would  carry  no  passports  nor  papers  to  establish  their 
identity,  and  defaced  the  imperial  arms  as  the  seal  of  the 
"Beast;''  they  prohibited  marriage,  held  all  things  in 
common,  and  called  each  other  "  brother  and  sister." 

In  this  co-fraternity  there  are  two  degrees  of  affiha- 
tion — that  of  "  pilgrims,"  or  "  fugitives,"  under  vows  of 
vagrancy  and  poverty,  and  that  of  "entertainers,"  or 
"  hospitallers,"  "  strannopreeimtsi.""  The  latter  are  nov- 
ices, who,  secretly  adhering  to  their  tenets,  continue  to 
pursue  their  ordinary  avocations,  and  Avhose  duty  is, 
pending  complete  initiation,  to  afford  refuge  and  help 
to  their  brethren.  The  Pilgrims  only  are  received  into 
full  communion  by  a  baptismal  rite,  which  imposes  utter 
renunciation  of  the  world  and  a  mendicant  life.  This 
ceremony  is  performed  at  night,  in  desert  places,  and,  in 
preference,  with  freshly-fallen  rain,  or  the  water  of  some 
distant  pool,  as  the  rivers  and  lakes  are  contaminated  by 
the  use  of  the  unrighteous. 

They  have  no  churches,  but  worship  in  secret  retreats, 
in  the  depths  of  the  forest,  around  trees,  on  Avliich  they 
hang  the  holy  images.  The  hospitallers,  in  considera- 
tion for  human  frailty,  are  allowed  a  time  of  j^robation, 
but  before  death  they  must  enter  into  full  communion 

'  "Le  Raskol,"p.  59. 

*  From  stranno,  a  stranger,  and  preelmeis,  ■welcoming,  receiving. 


THE  STKANNIKI,  OR  WANDERERS.  245 

by  holy  baptism.  Each  pilgrim  bears  his  wooden  platter 
and  spoon ;  they  will  neither  pray  nor  eat  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  worldly,  or  of  their  own  novices ;  they  sm^- 
round  themselves  witli  mystery,  and  recognize  each  other 
by  secret  signs ;  their  adepts  are  trained  to  strict  obedi- 
ence, and  may,  or,  if  so  bid,  must,  without  question,  min- 
ister to  the  wants  of  a  pilgrim  without  seeing  his  face 
or  hearing  his  voice.  By  their  extensive  ramifications, 
by  the  blind  devotion  of  their  adherents,  and  by  the  se- 
crecy that  shrouds  their  movements,  they  are  assured  of 
immunity  from  detection,  and  of  freedom  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  their  doctrines. 

The  reign  of  Nicholas  was  the  period  of  their  greatest 
prosperity.  This  monarch,  the  impersonation  of  abso- 
lute power,  implacable  enemy  of  liberalism  and  progress, 
was  hostile  to  spiritual  as  well  as  to  civil  freedom.  He 
believed  that  heretics  who  differed  from  his  opinions 
were  guilty  of  criminal  obstinacy,  and  merited  the  harsh 
severity  he  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  exercise ;  unity 
of  faith  he  deemed  essential  for  the  State;  he  would 
have  but  one  Church,  one  creed,  and  one  will  in  his  do- 
minions ;  his  subjects  should  not  only  obey  the  laws  he 
proclaimed,  they  should  worship  as  he  directed ;  the  cel- 
ebrated maxim  of  Count  Ouvarov  that  "  Autocracy,  Or- 
thodoxy, and  Nationality  are  the  three  principles  upon 
which  the  social  fabric  of  the  empire  rests," '  was  the 
basis  of  his  policy ;  he  grudgingly  accorded  a  measure  of 
toleration  to  the  mongrel  Church  of  the  "  Edinovcrtsi," 
but  pursued  all  dissenting  sects  with  relentless  and  ])er- 
sistent  severity. 

The  people  were  miserable  and  discontented,  their  con- 
dition pitiable,  their  desire  for  relief  intense,  and  they 


'  "Lc  Raskol,"p.  36. 


24G       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

listened  Avith  willing  cars  to  advocates  of  resistance  to 
their  opjjressors ;  they  welcomed  those  who  offered  a 
hope  of  escape  from  the  tyranny  which  made  their  lives 
a  burden.  These  missionaries  of  revolt  taught  secretly 
ill  barracks  and  in  prisons,  as  well  as  among  the  suffer- 
ing and  wretched  peasantry.  Runaway  serfs,  outlaws,  es- 
caped convicts,  fugitives  from  Siberia,  deserters  fleeing 
from  the  terrible  life-long  military  service,  were  received 
among  them  ;  they  encouraged  mendicancy  as  a  merito- 
rious profession,  and  to  all  vagabonds  without  papers, 
"  brodiagi,"  as  they  were  called,  they  offered  a  refuge 
from  police  pursuit. 

This  extreme  sect,  recruited  among  the  dregs  of  the 
people,  is  the  illustration  and  logical  result  of  the  Raskol 
pushed  to  its  farthest  limit ;  it  is  the  final  and  most  en- 
ergetic expression  of  popular  opposition  to  the  exactions 
of  an  all-pervading  despotism,  to  the  worries  of  an  insa- 
tiable, vexatious  bureaucracy,  to  the  dreaded  military 
conscription,  to  hopeless  servitude  of  body  and  soul.  Its 
adherents  could  offer  only  passive  resistance,  but  their 
exalted  fanaticism  welcomed  punishment,  and  even  death, 
in  evidence  of  their  determination  and  sincerity ;  like  the 
martyrs  of  old,  in  a  nobler  cause,  their  blood  and  their 
sufferings  were  the  seed  of  their  faith. 

Where  rigor  and  severity  have  failed,  reform,  liberal 
measures,  relief  from  cruel  and  crushing  abuses,  the  ab- 
olition of  serfdom  and  its  attendant  evils,  with  the  con- 
sequent amelioration  in  the  social  and  moral  condition 
of  the  people,  are  gradually  eradicating  these  extrava- 
gant and  monstrous  ideas  by  forcing  their  last  refuge 
among  tlie  lowest  and  most  degraded  of  the  population. 

The  anomalous  position  of  children  born  among  Ras- 
kolniks,  how  to  determine  their  civil  rights  and  settle 
questions  of  property  and  inheritance,  has  long  been  a 


LEGAL  MAEEIAGE  FOR  RASKOLNIKS,  247 

puzzling  problem  for  the  government.  The  only  mar- 
riage that  had  hitherto  been  recognized  by  the  Russian 
code  was  the  rehgious  ceremony,  celebrated  by  the  clergy 
of  the  established  Church,  which  alone  has  had  authority 
to  keep  the  official  registers  of  births  and  deaths. 

The  Bezpopovtsi  disavowed  marriage  altogether,  and 
the  clergy  of  the  Popo\i;si  had  no  legal  standing,  so  that 
the  ceremony  performed  by  them  was  of  no  effect.  In 
the  eye  of  the  law  all  chilch-en  born  among  the  Raskol- 
niks  of  either  branch  "were  illegitimate,  inca])able  of  in- 
heriting. 

Custom,  and  the  patriarchal  habits  of  the  people,  aided 
by  the  connivance  of  a  venal  administration,  afforded  in 
practice  a  partial  relief ;  but  a  complete  and  satisfactory 
solution  of  the  difficulty  seemed  beyond  reach.  The 
only  possible  remedies  appeared  to  be  recognition  of  the 
various  sects  and  giving  the  force  of  law  to  the  ceremo- 
nies adopted  by  them,  or  the  institution  of  a  civil  mar- 
riage. 

The  first  method  suggested  seriously  affected  the 
Church  and  the  interests  of  the  official  clerg}-,  and  was, 
moreover,  insufficient,  inasmuch  as  many  sects  recog- 
nized no  rehgious  ceremony  nor  any  form  of  marriage ; 
the  second  was  totally  at  variance  Avith  the  precepts  of 
the  Orthodox  creed,  and  equally  repugnant  to  the  Ras- 
kolniks,  who,  on  that  point,  agreed  with  the  Church,  and 
who  also  strongly  objected  to  the  registration  Avhich  it 
required. 

Finally,  in  1ST4,  an  expedient  was  devised  which  prom- 
ises to  satisfy  present  emergencies,  and  conciUates  con- 
flicting opinions.  Special  registers  for  Raskolniks  are 
placed  in  charge  of  the  police  and  district  authorities, 
and  they  are  empowered,  after  publication  of  the  bans 
for  a  week,  to  receive  and  enter  therein  the  declaration 


24S       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 

of  the  bridal  couple,  and  of  the  witnesses,  to  the  effect 
that  a  marriage  has  taken  place ;  they  may  thereupon, 
without  inquiry  as  to  the  performance  of  any  ceremony, 
grant  a  certificate  which  is  valid  in  law  as  evidence  of 
marriage,  confers  upon  the  contracting  parties  the  same 
rights  as  a  regular  marriage  before  a  priest,  and  sub- 
jects them,  in  like  manner,  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordi- 
nary tribunals  in  all  matters  appertaining  to  marriage 
and  divorce. 

This  measure  is  as  yet  limited  in  its  application  to  the 
million  or  more  schismatics  enrolled  upon  tlie  official 
lists  ;  its  benefit  for  them  is  very  great ;  it  regularizes 
their  social  position  and  that  of  their  children,  relieves 
them  from  ginevous  humiliation,  and  elevates  them,  both 
in  their  oAvn  estimation  and  before  the  law,  to  an  equal- 
ity with  their  fellow-subjects.  Restricted  as  it  yet  is,  it 
may  well  rank  high  among  the  many  wise  reforms  of 
the  late  reign,  and  affords  palpable  evidence  of  the  spirit 
animating  both  State  and  Church  in  dealing  wuth  the 
momentous  problems  which  the  religious  question  pre- 
sents. 

For  a  full  comprehension  of  the  many  and  great  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  the  attempt  to  arrive  at  a  full  so- 
lution of  this  complicated  and  perplexing  subject,  it  is 
necessary  to  pursue  the  inquiry  further,  to  descend  to 
the  lower  strata  of  Russian  Dissent,  and  to  extend  inves- 
tigation alongside  of  and  below  the  Raskol,  properly  so 
called,  with  its  many  branches  and  ramifications.  In 
these  depths  of  popular  superstition,  underneath  the  Old 
Believers,  who  are  in  partial  harmony  with  the  Church, 
and  the  Xo  Priests,  who  reject  Church  and  clergy,  there 
are  numerous  obscure  and  mysterious  sects ;  some  in- 
digenous, evolved  from  the  excitable,  prolific  imagina- 
tion of  the  Russian  people,  without  direct  affiliation  with 


LOWER  RAMIFICATIONS  OF  DISSENT.  249 

the  Easkol ;  others  of  foreign  origin,  either  disseminat- 
ing rationahstic  and  communistic  theories,  which  have 
analogy  with  Western  ideas,  or  presenting  strange  and 
fantastic  doctrines,  which,  in  their  extravagance,  rival 
and  seem  to  revive  the  wildest  vagaries  of  ancient  East- 
ern fanaticism. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Sects  not  Belonging  to  the  Raskol. — Mystical  and  Rationalistic  Sects. 
— Erratic  Sects. — Recent  Sects. — Vitality  of  Sectarian  Spirit. — Atti- 
tude of  Government  towards  Dissent. 

Theke  are  in  Russia,  apart  from,  and  independent  of, 
the  Raskol,  strictly  speaking,  numerous  other  sects,  har- 
monizing in  some  degree  with  its  extreme  ramifications, 
but  drawing  their  inspiration  from  different  sources,  and, 
in  most  res])ects,  separate  and  distinct  from  it.  They  did 
not  originate  in  any  rupture  between  ancient  tradition 
and  modern  innovation,  but  in  rejection  of  all  Orthodox, 
in  many  instances  of  all  Christian,  doctrine  or  tradition. 

Viewed  as  a  whole,  Russian  sects  exhibit  singular  con- 
trasts: those  which  pertain  to  the  Raskol  arc  distin- 
guished for  scrupulous  adherence  to  form  and  ceremo- 
nial, and  are  imbued  with  a  rigidly  conservative,  reac- 
tionary spirit ;  while  the  others,  making  clean  sweep  of 
dogma  and  ritual,  rush  to  the  contrary  extreme,  and  es- 
pouse the  most  advanced,  novel,  and  revolutionary  ideas. 

This  wide  divergence  is  due  to  the  character  of  the 
people,  excessive  in  all  things,  in  revolt  as  in  submission, 
and  also  to  the  constitution  of  the  Eastern  Church.  In 
it,  as  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  various  elements  are  so 
combined,  and  are  so  mutually  dependent,  that  difference 
of  opinion  on  fundamental  principles  is  inadmissible,  and 
denial  of  one  article  of  belief  involves  rejection  of  them 
all;  minor  questions  of  ritual  and  discipline  only  are 
open  for  discussion. 

Amid  the  divers  and  contradictory  characteristics  of 


SECTS  NOT  BELONGING  TO  THE  RASKOL.  251 

sects  foreign  to  the  Easkol,  one  feature  is  common  to 
them  all — disregard  of  form  and  ceremony,  of  tradition 
and  authority.  They  proclaim  contempt  for  the  letter 
of  the  law,  but  pretend  to  cling  to  its  essence ;  they  boast 
the  possession  of  spiritual  religion,  pure  and  undefiled. 
Freed  from  all  trammels,  independent  of  all  control,  ex- 
ercising full  liberty  of  opinion,  they  pursue  their  ratioci- 
nations to  their  logical  but,  frequently,  extravagant  and 
absurd  conclusions. 

The  original  sources  from  which  these  various  creeds 
arose  cannot  be  accurately  determined  ;  they  must  be 
sought  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Russian  race,  both  in 
the  West  and  in  the  East,  and  are  Oriental  as  well  as  Eu- 
ropean. Of  these  sects  some  are  tinged  with  the  forgot- 
ten Christian  heresies  of  the  first  centuries,  others  are 
bhndly  groping  in  and  about  the  theories  which  form 
the  subject  of  modern  thought  and  inquiry.  Many, 
which  appear  to  exhibit  results  emanating  from  contact 
with  the  west  of  Europe,  are,  from  this  possible  historic 
affihation,  and  a  certain  assimilation  in  their  teachings, 
collectively  designated  by  native  authors  as  Russian 
Quakerism.  But  the  term  is  not  exact ;  their  doctrines 
are  too  varied,  too  peculiar,  notwithstanding  some  points 
of  accord,  for  so  comprehensive  a  classification.  Others 
might,  with  more  propriety,  bo  called  Gnostic ;  they  pre- 
sent a  curious  mixture  of  realism  and  mysticism,  of  pa- 
gan and  Christian  ideas,  and  offer  such  strange  analogies 
with  notable  heresies  of  the  early  Church  that  Russian 
writers  have  revived  for  them  the  ancient  names,  as,  for 
instance,  the  "Montani,"  so  called,  probably,  from  the 
"  Montanists,"  heretics  of  the  third  centurv,  who,  like 
their  modern  protot3'pes,  "maintained  an  enthusiastic 
succession  of  prophecy." 

They  all  proclaim  the  spiritual  nature  of  their  belief, 


252     THE  KUSSLVN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent. 

and  may  bo  classed  in  two  categories,  according  as  they 
trust  to  inspiration,  or  as  they  rely  upon  reason  and  free 
inquiry. 

The  former  are  mystical,  inoculated  with  Gnostic  her- 
esies, reproducing  and  exaggerating  the  eccentricities  and 
aberrations  of  ancient  fanaticism.  The  latter  are  ration- 
alistic, proclaiming  a  reformator}^,  higher,  more  philo- 
sophic doctrine ;  they  aim  at  a  religion  free  from  dog- 
mas and  ceremonies,  similar  to  that  of  the  more  ad- 
vanced denominations  of  Protestantism. 

In  the  sombre  and  mysterious  recesses  of  the  Russian 
mind,  in  the  constantly  active  workings  of  popular 
thought,  there  is  a  strange  admixture  of  the  fantastic 
and  monstrous  heresies  of  the  early  and  middle  ages 
fermenting  with  modern  progressive  ideas,  crudely  con- 
ceived and  partially  understood ;  the  grossest  and  most 
materialistic  impostures  of  the  past  are  revived  in  pres- 
ence of  vague  and  indefinite  aspirations  for  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  truth,  as  seen  in  the  clearer  light  of 
the  present  day.  These  two  groups  of  sects,  antagonistic 
in  the  nature  of  their  doctrines,  the  one  appealing  to  the 
senses  and  the  imagination,  the  other  to  reason  and  re- 
flection, both  claim  to  be  striving  after  a  purer,  more 
elevated,  and  more  spiritual  religion. 

The  mystic  sects  all  accejit  and  depend  upon  prophecy ; 
their  ailherents  believe  in  constant  communications  with 
the  Deity;  they  are  instructed  and  led  by  inspiration, 
comforted  and  sustained  by  visions,  and  feel  a  deep  con- 
viction of  supernatural  guidance,  which  fills  their  souls 
with  faith,  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen.  The  period 
of  revelation  has  never  been  closed,  or,  if  closed,  has  been 
reopened  for  them.  Prophets  still  walk  the  earth  ;  per- 
sonal manifestations  and  incarnations  of  the  Divinity 
still  occur.  Judiea  is  not  the  only  country  that  has  been. 


THE  KIILYSTI. 


253 


blessed  by  the  presence  of  the  Son  of  God ;  there  are 
Bethlehems  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  and  of  the  Oka, 
where  new  Christs  have  been  born  to  bring  glad  tidings 
of  good  things." 

"  I  am  the  God  announced  by  the  prophets,  descended  a 
second  time  upon  earth  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  and 
there  is  no  other  God  but  Me,"  is  the  first  commandment 
of  Daniel  Philippovitch,  the  incarnate  God  of  the  Khlysti. 

In  no  other  country,  among  no  other  civilized  people, 
would  such  cynical  blasphemies  be  listened  to,  much  less 
reverently  accepted ;  and  their  success  denotes  a  mental 
state  as  primitive,  as  credulous,  and  as  expectant  of  di- 
vine revelation  as  was  that  of  the  Eastern  world  when 
Christ  appeared. 

The  two  most  important  of  the  mystic  sects,  the 
"Khlysti "  and  the  "  Skoptsi,"  or  the  "  Flagellants  "  and 
the  "  Eunuchs,"  are  generally  considered  to  be  closely 
connected ;  the  latter  to  be,  perhaps,  an  extension  or  a 
continuation  of  the  former. 

The  "  Khlysti "  are  so  called  from  khlyst,  a  whip,  in 
allusion  to  the  practice  common  among  them  of  self- 
flagellation  ;  they  take  themselves  the  name  of  "  Khrys- 
tovschina,"  or  the  "  Community  of  Disciples  of  Christ," 
which,  by  a  sarcastic  pla}'  on  words,  is  transformed  into 
"  Khlystovschina,"  or Community  of  the  Whip."  The 
appellation  they  prefer  is  "  Lioudi  Bojii " — "  Men  of  God," 
and  they  address  each  other  as  "  brother  "  and  "  sister." 

The  origin  of  the  sect  is  uncertain ;  it  is  supposed  to 
have  arisen  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  to  have  been  introduced  into  Eussia  by  foreign 
traders.  Some  authorities  give  as  its  founder  one  KuU- 
mann,  a  disciple  of  Jacob  Boehm.  This  visionary  came 
to  Russia  as  the  apostle  of  a  new  revelation ;  announced 
himself  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  preached  the  coming  of 


254       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

the  kingdom  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Accused  and  convicted 
of  heresy,  he  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  1G89  at  JNIoscow. 

The  Khlysti  themselves  claim  to  be  of  national,  and 
also  of  divine  origin ;  they  have  their  traditions  and  a 
gospel,  orally  transmitted,  for  it  is  a  princii)le  of  their 
creed,  scrupulously  observed,  never  to  reduce  their  doc- 
trines to  writing.  "When  their  God  a])pcared  on  earth  he 
cast  aside  the  Scriptures  and  prohibited  all  written  tes- 
timony, in  order  that  his  disciples  might  never  be  dis- 
turbed by  conflicting  statements,  or  by  disputes  and  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  such  as  distract  the  Orthodox  and  the 
Old  Believers ;  by  this  precaution  they  hide  the  myste- 
ries of  their  faith  and  the  secrets  of  their  worship,  and 
give  to  personal  inspiration  its  widest,  freest  scope,  un- 
fettered by  any  previously  recorded  revelation. 

According  to  their  traditions,  the  true  faith  was  re- 
vealed during  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  by  the  Fa- 
ther Almighty,  Avho  descended  from  heaven  in  clouds  of 
fire,  upon  Mount  Gorodine,  in  the  government  of  Vladi- 
mir, and  was  incarnate  in  the  person  of  Daniel  Philippo- 
vitch,  a  peasant  of  Kostroma,  and  a  deserter  from  the 
army,  to  whom  his  adorers  gave  the  appellation  of  the 
God  "  Sabaoth." 

By  union  with  a  woman  a  hundred  years  old,  he  be- 
gat a  son  named  Ivan  Timofeievitch  Souslov,  whom,  be- 
fore rcascending  into  heaven,  he  proclaimed  to  be  the 
Christ.  His  followers  called  themselves  the  "  worship- 
pers of  the  living  God,"  and,  like  the  Brahmins  of  India, 
who  teach  the  constantly-recurring  birth  of  Vishnu,  they 
seem  to  have  felt  the  need  of  a  frequent  re-apparition  of 
the  Divinity  to  keep  alive  the  faith ;  and  they  have  had 
a  procession  of  Christs,  succeeding  one  the  other,  by 
adoption  or  filiation,  each  reverenced  as  the  living  Sav 
iour,  the  representative  of  the  first  incarnation. 


THE  KHLYSTI. 


255 


Ivan  SousloY,  who  was  a  serf  of  the  Nariskyne  fam- 
ily, chose  twelve  apostles,  and  with  them  preached  the 
twelve  commandments  of  his  father,  Sabaoth.  He  was 
arrested  by  the  police,  scourged,  branded,  and  tortured 
without  revealing  the  mysteries  of  his  creed,  and  was 
crucified  near  the  holy  gate  of  the  Ej'emlin ;  buried  on 
Friday,  he  rose  again  on  the  night  of  Saturday,  and  re- 
appeared among  his  disciples.  The  legend,  so  far  drawn 
from  the  Biblical  narrative,  Avas  not  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  cravings  of  his  followers  for  miracles ;  and  it  goes 
on  to  relate  that  he  was  again  seized  and  crucified,  and 
his  skin  flayed  from  his  body ;  that  over  the  bloody  and 
palpitating  Umbs  a  woman  spread  a  sheet,  which  formed 
a  new  skin,  and  Christ,  resuscitated  again,  lived  many 
years  on  earth,  and  finally  ascended  into  heaven  to  be 
joined  with  the  Father. 

Every  relic  of  their  incarnate  deities,  the  villages 
where  they  were  born,  the  dweUiugs  they  inhabited, 
their  places  of  burial  before  ascending  on  high,  are  held 
in  special  veneration.  Although  the  Khlysti  rejected 
marriage  as  unclean,  an  exception  was  made  for  the 
families  of  Daniel  Philippovitch  and  Ivan  Souslov,  in 
order  that  the  blood  of  the  first  Eedeemer  might  not 
die  out  from  among  men.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Nicholas  there  lived  in  the  hamlet  of  Staroe, 
thirty  versts  from  Kostroma,  a  woman  named  Ouliana 
Vassiliev,  to  whom  they  rendered  divine  lionors,  as  the 
last  lineal  descendant  of  Philippovitch.  To  put  an  end 
to  the  pilgrimages  and  manifestations  of  which  she  was 
the  object,  the  govermnent  placed  her  in  an  Orthodox 
convent,  but  the  house  she  had  occupied  is  still  venerated 
as  a  holy  shrine,  as  "  God's  house,"  and  Staroe  has  be- 
come their  Xazareth ;  a  well  in  the  village  furnishes  the 
water  used  to  make  the  bread  for  their  communion,  and 


25G       'i'lll'^  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

is  forwarded  during  winter  in  frozen  blocks  to  tlieir  dif- 
ferent coniniuuities. 

The  moral  laAv  of  the  twelve  commandments  issued 
by  Pliilippovitch  is  rigid  and  austere ;  the  use  of  spirits, 
marriage,  and  presence  at  wedding-feasts  or  similar  fes- 
tivals, incontinency,  theft,'  and  swearing,  are  forbidden ; 
brotherly  love,  belief  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  secrecy 
u])on  matters  of  faith  are  enjoined. 

It  is  not  possible  to  ascribe  the  rapid  increase  of  this 
sect  to  the  silly  legends  related  of  its  founders,  or  to  any 
special  influence  of  its  moral  code,  which  is  in  itself  nei- 
ther new  nor  in  any  wise  remarkable  ;  its  success  and 
popularity  must  rather  be  attributed  to  the  doctrine  of 
personal  inspiration,  which  it  persistently  inculcated. 

Its  adherents  were  taught  to  believe  in  the  spirit  as 
made  manifest  in  themselves,  to  trust  to  the  promptings 
of  their  own  souls,  to  accept  the  effervescence  of  their 
own  imaginations  as  evidence  of  the  Holy  Ghost  work- 
ing within  them ;  added  to  this  was  the  powerful  stimu- 
lant of  imposed  secrecy ;  the  ignorant  and  credulous  love 
the  unknown,  and  the  mysteries  of  the  faith  and  worship 
were  concealed  from  strangers  with  a  jealous  care,  which 
excited  wonder  and  curiosity.  "  Keep  my  precepts  se- 
cret," says  their  dodecalogue ;  "  reveal  them  neither  to  fa- 
ther nor  mother ;  though  thou  be  scourged  with  the  knout, 
or  burned  with  fire,  suffer  "without  opening  thy  mouth ;" 
and  the  proselyte,  at  his  initiation,  swears  to  preserve 
silence  upon  all  he  may  see  or  hear,  "  without  impatience 


'  The  commandment  forbidding  theft,  a  very  common  wcalcness  of 
the  Russian  peasant,  is  conveyed  in  figurative  and  singularly  impres- 
sive language:  "  Thou  shalt  not  steal:  whoever  shall  have  stolen  even 
a  kopeck  shall  bear  it  upon  his  head  at  the  judgment  day,  and  his  sin 
shall  not  be  forgiven  him  until  the  kopeck  shall  be  melted  in  the  flames 
of  hell."   A  kopeck  is  a  large  copper  coin,  of  less  value  than  a  cent. 


THE  KHLYSTI. 


257 


and  without  fear  of  the  knout,  of  the  stake,  or  of  the 
sword." 

These  injunctions  to  secrecy,  common  to  all  the  mys- 
tical sects,  together  with  the  absence  of  all  written  testi- 
mony, explain  why  the  existence  of  these  communities 
remained  so  long  unknown,  and  why,  when  it  was  first 
suspected,  so  little  could  be  ascertained  regarchng  them ; 
the  difliculty  of  detection  was  moreover  enhanced  by 
the  fact  that  their  disciples  were  ostensibly  members 
of  the  established  Church,  and  conformed  strictly  to  its 
rites  and  regulations. 

As  has  been  the  case  with  other  secret  bodies,  the 
Khlj'sti  have  been  accused  of  immoral  and  licentious 
practices ;  most  probably,  in  recent  days,  these  accusa- 
tions are  not  unfounded,  but  when  reprehensible  ex- 
cesses exist  they  are  an  incidental,  not  a  necessary,  con- 
sequence of  their  teachings,  and  may  not  be  adducetl  as 
the  attraction  to  which  is  due  the  rapid  extension  of  the 
sect.  In  meetings  of  mystic  enthusiasts  there  are  always 
appeals  to  sensuous  excitement,  and  appearances  are  often 
deceitful;  similar  suspicions  were  aroused  against  the 
agapce  of  the  early  Christians.  Exuberance  of  language 
and  gesture,  ardent  and  voluptuous  expressions,  tender 
and  affectionate  imagery,  are  resorted  to,  often  invol- 
untarily, as  a  means  of  quickening  mental  perceptions, 
kindling  the  imagination,  and  awakening  the  soul  to 
holy  ecstasy ;  even  Avhen  the  bounds  of  decency  are 
passed  it  is  with  ulterior  puqiose,  and  not  as  an  end. 

Many  of  these  Russian  sectaries  have,  like  their  proto- 
types of  old,  or  their  modern  Anglo-Saxon  brethren, 
adopted  violent  and  continuous  corporal  exercise  as  a 
part  of  their  ritual.  Dancing  in  some  form,  as  well  as 
singing,  is  an  habitual  ceremony.  With  the  Klilysti  a 
whirling  rotatory  movement,  similar  to  that  of  Mahom- 
17 


258       THE  RUSSIAN  CUURCII  AKD  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

etan  dervishes,  or  of  American  Shakers,  is  practised.  The 
meeting  is  opened  with  hymns  and  invocations  to  the 
God  Sabaoth  and  to  the  Christ  Ivan  ;  after  which  the  chief 
elder  reads  from  Acts  the  words  of  the  ])rophet  Joel : 
"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  last  days,  saith  God, 
I  will  pour  out  of  my  Spirit  upon  all  flesh,  and  your  sons 
and  your  daughters  shall  ])ropliesy,  and  your  young  men 
shall  see  visions,  and  your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams  " 
(Acts  ii.,  17).  Then  follows  a  spectacle,  such  as  may  be 
seen  among  the  dervishes  of  the  East ;  the  hearers  com- 
mence the  sacred  dance,  at  first  in  solemn  measure,  turn- 
ing in  slow  cadence,  then  Avitli  quickly  increasing  rapid- 
ity, until  the  whole  congregation  is  revolving  round  in 
a  bewildering,  gidd}''  maze ;  men  and  women,  old  and 
young,  in  transports  of  contagious  frenzy,  are  borne 
away  in  the  crazy  whirl  with  frantic  distortions  and 
gesticulations  to  imitate  the  flutter  of  an  angel's  wings, 
and  lost  to  all  sense  of  time  or  place.  Each  follows  his 
own  fancy,  according  to  the  devotional  inspiration  of  the 
moment ;  one,  seized  with  convulsive  trembhng,  stands 
rooted  to  the  spot  in  ecstatic  rapture  ;  another,  with  wild 
cries  and  sobs,  stamps  and  bounds  in  the  air ;  one  goes 
whizzing  round  the  room  in  a  furious  waltz;  another 
spins  upon  his  heels  like  a  teetotum,  with  arms  extend- 
ed and  closed  eyes,  rapt  in  inward  contemplation ;  the 
veteran  performers  are  so  skilled  in  this  holy  exercise 
and  gyrate  with  such  rapidity  that  they  seem  more  like 
whirling  phantoms  than  human  beings ;  their  long 
dresses  swell  out  around  them,  their  hair  stands  erect, 
they  are  dead  to  all  surroundings,  and  spin  and  twist 
and  twirl  until  they  fall  exhausted,  almost  insensible, 
breathing  out  broken  sighs  and  unintelligible  exclama- 
tions from  their  parched  and  panting  lips.  Their  faint- 
ness  and  the  perspiration  pouring  from  their  bodies  they 


MYSTICISM  IN  RUSSIAN  SOCIETY. 


259 


liken  to  the  agony  and  bloody  sweat  of  Christ  in  the 
garden  of  Gethseraane.  These  religious  dances  are 
provocative  of  intense  sensual  enjoyment ;  they  act  upon 
the  nervous  system  like  strong  liquors  or  narcotics,  and 
intoxicate  like  opium  or  hashish.  The  Khlysti  caU  them 
their  spiritual  beer,  "  doukliovnoe  pivo,"  and  frequently 
stimulate  their  effect  by  scourging  with  rods ;  hence  the 
name  apphed  to  the  sect. 

The  crisis  of  supreme  exaltation  is  the  moment  for 
prophesying;  half-uttered  phrases,  frantic  ejaculations, 
incoherent  words,  are  accepted  as  revelations  from  on 
high,  transmitted  through  their  unconscious  means,  and 
if  the  message  is  incomprehensible,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
unknown  tongues,  which  the  elder  may  interpret  at  his 
pleasure. 

The  Easkol  has,  since  the  days  of  Peter  the  Great, 
been  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  lower  orders,  but 
of  these  mystical  sects  some  have  penetrated  into  high 
places.  Imperial  ul^ases  and  official  records  show  that 
their  adepts  were,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  found  at 
court  m  princely  families,  among  foreigners  of  distinc- 
tion and  ecclesiastics  of  exalted  rank,  as  well  as  among 
native  Russians  and  laymen.  Similar  occurrences  tooii 
place  during  the  reigns  of  Alexander  I.  and  of  Nicholas. 
In  1817  a  secret  society  of  mystics  was  detected  in  the 
imperial  palace  of  Michael,  at  St.  Petersburg  ;  it  was  dis- 
persed by  the  police,  and  a  few  years  later  was  again 
sur]orised  in  a  neighboring  suburb.  Officers  of  the  em-  1 
peror's  household,  functionaries  of  high  rank,  both  men 
and  women,  were  among  its  members,  all  solemnly 
pledged  to  secrecy  and  possessed  of  the  spirit  of  proph- 
ecy. To  arouse  the  ])rophetic  inspiration  they  had  re- 
course to  the  whirling  dance  and  scourging  of  the 
Khlysti ;  brotherly  love,  mystic  union  of  the  sexes,  spir- 


2G0       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

itual  marriage,  and  the  inward  presence  of  the  Holy 
Gliost  were  their  favorite  topics  of  discussion. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  their  doctrines,  although 
eminently  hostile  to  the  Christian  religion,  Avere  received 
with  especial  favor  by  monks  and  nuns,  and  by  the  peas- 
antry belonging  to  monasteries.  This  singular  circum- 
stance has  been  attributed  to  the  antagonism  existing 
between  the  lower  and  the  upper  clergy,  and  considered 
a  species  of  protestation  on  the  part  of  the  inferior  or- 
ders against  the  domineering  and  corruption  laid  to  the 
charge  of  their  superior  brethren.  Religious  communities, 
as,  for  instance,  the  convent  of  the  Dyevitchi,  at  Moscow, 
Avere  infested  with  these  heresies ;  in  Orthodox  churches 
their  leaders,  dying  apparently  in  the  odor  of  sanctity, 
were  entombed  in  holy  ground,  and  pilgrims  worshipped 
at  shrines  polluted  by  their  remains.  To  check  this 
scandal  and  desecration,  when  it  was  discovered,  their 
graves  were  opened  and  cleansed  and  their  bodies  com- 
mitted to  the  flames. 

Russian  society  of  this  period,  wear}^  of  Voltairian  scep- 
ticism and  encyclopedic  materialism,  agitated  by  vague 
devotional  aspirations,  was  awakening  to  the  seductions 
of  a  spiritualistic  faith.  Philosophic  theories,  mystical 
ideas,  inspired  by  Cagliostro,  St.  Germain,  and  Mesmer ; 
Freemasonry,  with  its  secret  mysteries ;  religious  Cath- 
olic influences,  diffused  by  Joseph  de  Maistre  and  the 
Jesuits,  were  mingling  and  comminghng,  working  to- 
gether in  mutual  action  and  reaction.  Circumstances 
were  jn-opitious  for  the  reception,  even  in  pohshed  cir- 
cles, of  the  dreamy,  fanciful  illuminism  of  earnest  enthu- 
siasts, although  of  low  and  vulgar  origin.  It  was,  how- 
ever, but  the  fashion  of  the  moment,  and,  speedil}^  for- 
gotten, fell  back  into  the  depths  from  which  it  sprang. 
There,  by  contact  with  the  gross  ignorance  and  sensual 


THE  SHAKOUNI,  OR  JUMPERS. 


261 


proclivities  of  the  people,  it  rapidly  became  materialized 
and  polluted  by  all  the  aberrations  naturally  resulting 
from  unrestrained  exercise  of  personal  inspiration. 

Apostles  of  asceticism,  chastity,  and  self-denial  were 
succeeded  by  demagogues  preaching  and  practising  self- 
indulgence  and  license.  Pure  spirituality  could  not  suf- 
fice, abstract  morality  had  no  meaning,  aroused  no  en- 
thusiasm ;  sensual  gratification  was  more  alluring  than 
mere  pleasures  of  the  imagination.  Carnal  appetites 
were  appealed  to,  and  their  satisfaction  encouraged,  as  a 
prelude  and  excitement  to  the  ecstatic  trance.  Em- 
braces, kisses,  and  the  intercourse  of  the  sexes  became, 
among  the  mystics,  as  among  barbarous  tribes  of  old,  a 
part  of  their  religious  service  ;  the  sacred  names  of  char- 
ity and  love  were  prostrated  to  ignoble  use. 

An  offshoot  of  the  Khlysti,  known  as  the  "  Shakouni,'' 
or  "  Jumpers,"  openly  professed  debauchery  and  Hber- 
tinism  to  excess,  as  an  efficient  means  of  conquering  the 
flesh  by  exhaustion  and  satiety,  and  of  hastening  the 
moment  of  prophetic  revelation. 

This  branch  sect,  which  was  detected  at  St.  Petersburg 
during  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.,  differs  from  its  parent 
stock  in  the  style  of  gymnastics  adopted  by  its  members, 
but  also  and  especially  in  the  abominable  obscenities  it 
preaches  and  practices  as  a  religious  duty.  It  is  su]h 
posed  to  be  of  foreign  origin,  having  been  introduced 
into  Eussia  from  the  Finnish  provinces.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  intentions  of  its  founders,  it  has  degen- 
erated into  a  secret  society  for  the  encouragement  of 
vice  and  sensual  indulgence. 

Instead  of  a  rotary  motion,  its  exercise  consists  in 
leaping,  springing  from  the  ground  in  successive  bounds, 
and  hence  the  name  applied  to  its  adherents.  They 
meet  secretly  at  night,  the  leader  chants  the  prayers, 


2G2       THE  KUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

commencing  in  a  low,  monotonous  tone,  gradually  in- 
creasing in  rapidity  and  loudness,  and,  with  the  grow- 
ing excitement  of  his  hearers,  he  begins  a  slow  jump- 
ing movement,  modulated  on  his  song,  and  becoming 
more  and  more  violent  as  his  voice  rises  higher  and  the 
chanting  quickens ;  the  audience,  arranged  in  couples,  en- 
gaged to  each  other  in  advance,  imitate  his  example  and 
join  the  strain;  the  bounds  and  the  singing  grow  faster 
and  louder  as  the  frenzy  spreads,  until,  at  its  height, 
the  elder  shouts  that  he  hears  the  voices  of  angels ;  the 
lights  are  extinguished,  the  jumping  ceases,  and  the 
scene  that  follows  in  the  darkness  defies  description. 
Each  one  yields  to  his  desires,  born  of  inspiration,  and 
therefore  righteous,  and  to  be  gratified ;  all  are  brethren 
in  Chi'ist,  all  promptings  of  the  inner  spirit  are  holy ;  in- 
cest, even,  is  no  sin.  They  repudiate  marriage,  and  jus- 
tify their  abominations  by  the  Biblical  legends  of  Lot's 
daughters,  Solomon's  harem,  and  the  like.  Other  of  their 
rites  are  abject  and  disgusting ;  their  chief  is  the  Uving 
Christ,  and  their  communion  consists  in  embracing  his 
body ;  ordinary  disciples  may  kiss  his  hand  or  foot ;  to 
those  of  more  fervent  piety  he  offers  his  tongue  ! 

These  fanatics  are  vigorously  pursued  by  the  pohce, 
their  meetings  are  dispersed,  men  are  imprisoned  and 
Avomen  confined  in  houses  of  correction,  but,  notwith- 
standing, they  have  spread  from  the  capital  to  cities  of 
the  interior ;  their  performances  in  their  difi'erent  com- 
munities have  varied,  but  have  been  always  of  the  same 
licentious  nature. 

At  Riazan  a  prophetess  assumed  the  title  of  "  Mother 
of  God ;"  chosen  adepts  performed  the  sacred  dance  in 
couples  before  her  with  blasphemous  obscenities  too  hor- 
rible to  name,  while  she  exhorted  them  in  the  words  ad- 
dressed to  the  wise  virgins  whose  lamps  were  trimmed ; 


INFLUENCE  OF  RELIGIOUS  EXALTATION.  2G3 

and  the  congregation  around  repeated  the  $ign  of  the 
cross  and  bowed  in  prayer. 

At  Smolensk  they  danced  naked,  and  the  people,  in 
derision,  nicknamed  them  "  Cupids."  All  mystical  and 
religious  symbolism  disappeared,  and  their  meetings  are 
simply  disgusting  orgies. 

To  the  erotic  and  libidinous  rites  of  these  and  similar 
sects  were  sometimes  joined  cruel  and  bloody  ceremonies, 
which  are  relics  of  ancient  paganism,  preserved  in  popu- 
lar ti-adition.  Suffering  and  death,  as  well  as  volupt- 
uousness and  sensuaUty,  the  mysteries  of  the  grave  like 
the  Avonderful  reproduction  of  hfe,  appeal  strongly  to 
the  imagination  of  a  simple,  childishly  ignorant,  and 
credulous  race. 

Human  sacrifices  and  a  species  of  devout  cannibalism, 
exalted  to  religious  significance,  are  alleged  against  some 
of  these  crazed  fanatics.  It  is  said  they  baptize  and  slay 
an  infant  born  of  an  unmarried  woman,  and  commune  with 
its  heart  and  blood,  mixed  with  honey,  as  emblematic  of 
the  blood  of  the  Lamb ;'  and  that  on  Easter  night,  when 
they  celebrate  the  worship  of  tlie  Mother  of  God,  they  cut 
out  pieces  from  the  breast  of  a  young  girl,  and  share  the 
morsels  among  them,  while  they  sing  and  dance  around 
her.  The  victim,  who  is  persuaded  by  promises  of  glory 
in  the  life  to  come  and  honor  in  this  world,  to  offer  up 
herself  a  living  sacrifice,  is  ever  afterwards  held  as  holy." 
Ferocious  and  savage  practices  of  this  nature  are  totally 
at  variance  with  the  naturally  mild  and  kindly  character 
of  the  Russian  peasant ;  but  under  the  influence  of  re- 
ligious exaltation  he  is  transformed  into  a  wild  beast, 
reckless  of  consequences ;  ready  in  the  past  for  murder 


'  Archbishop  Philaret,  "History  of  the  Russian  Church." 
'  Haxthausen,  vol.  i. ,  p.  253. 


26i       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

or  for  self-immolation,  as  his  frenzy  might  dictate,  and 
ca])ablc  at  the  ])rcsent  day  of  excesses  as  brutal  and  as 
extraordinary. 

In  no  other  country  has  a  moral  and  religious  system 
ever  been  based  upon  deliberate  and  degrading  mutila- 
tion of  the  body.  It  Avere  vain  to  seek  a  parallel  during 
the  darkest  days  of  paganism,  or  in  the  most  carefully 
hidden  mysteries  of  Grecian  mythology.  Enthusiasts, 
like  Origen,  may  have  sacrificed  their  manhood  in  order 
to  secure  tranquillity  of  mind  and  perfect  freedom  of 
thought,  but  neither  the  priests  of  heathen  deities  nor 
Christian  fanatics  have  ever  raised  the  act  to  the  height 
of  a  moral  obligation,  or  endeavored  to  found  upon  it  a 
creed  and  a  religion.  This  has  been  reserved  for  Eussian 
zealots. 

The  severity  of  the  early  fathers  in  v^^hatever  related 
to  the  connection  of  the  sexes  sprang  from  abhorrence 
of  any  enjoyment  which  might  gratify  the  sensual,  and 
degrade  the  spiritual,  nature  of  man.  They  averred  that 
if  Adam  had  preserved  his  obedience  to  the  Creator  he 
would  have  lived  a  life  of  virgin  purity,  and,  by  some 
harmless  mode  of  vegetation,  Paradise  would  have  been 
peopled  with  a  race  of  innocent  and  immortal  beings  ;* 
but  they  preached  sobriety  and  continence,  not  mutila- 
tion. The  "  Skoptsi,"  or  the  "  Eunuchs,"  with  the  inex- 
orable logic  of  the  Russian  peasant,  push  their  reasoning 
further. 

Emasculation  is,  according  to  them,  simply  the  most 
radical  and  effective  form  of  asceticism,  as  it  removes 
all  incentive  to  indulgence,  and  therefore  it  should  be 
practised.  The  surest  way  of  attaining  the  holy  gift  of 
prophecy,  and  of  being  at  one  with  God,  is  to  free  the 


'  Gibbon,  vol.  ii.,  p.  323. 


THE  SKOPTSI,  OR  EUNUCHS, 


265 


soul  from  the  influence  of  the  senses,  and,  by  destroying 
the  carnal  appetites,  to  make  the  mind  independent  of 
the  body;  this  they  inculcate  as  a  solemn  obligation. 
They  teach  that  man  should  be  like  the  angels,  without 
sex  and  without  desire.  Their  poetry  and  hymns  are 
fiUed  with  allusions  to  this  ideal  excellence.  They  caU 
themselves  the  "  White  Doves,"  "  Belye  Goloubi ;"  the 
"  Holy  Ones,"  the  "  Pure  and  Saintly "  in  a  world  of 
sinners ;  the  "  Virgins,"  who  follow  the  Lamb  whither- 
soever he  goeth  (Eev.  xiv.,  4). 

Marriage  and  the  relations  of  the  sexes  have  in  Russia 
given  rise  to  the  most  contrachctory  opinions,  with  dia- 
metrically opposite  results  —  unbridled  license  and  en- 
forced continency  by  mutilation. 

The  Skoptsi,  on  this  question,  agree  with  the  most  rad- 
ical sects  of  the  Easkol,  and  resemble  them  also  in  some 
other  particulars,  and  in  the  tendencies  of  the  doctrines 
they  profess.  Like  the  Feodocians  and  the  Stranniki, 
they  disregard  consequences,  and  push  their  logical  de- 
ductions, without  faltering,  to  the  end.  They  manifest 
the  reahsm  inherent  to  the  Russian  character,  and,  with 
it,  the  reverence  for  the  letter  of  the  law  which  distin- 
guishes the  Old  Believer;  they  materialize  asceticism, 
reducing  it  to  a  surgical  operation,  and  giving  a  literal 
inter]iretation  to  scriptural  injunctions.  They  lay  great 
stress  on  the  Saviour's  commands :  "  If  thy  hand  or  thy 
foot  offend  thee,  cut  them  off ;"  and, "  if  thine  eye  offend 
thee,  pluck  it  out  and  cast  it  from  thee"  (Matt,  xviii.,  8, 
9).  They  base  their  peculiar  tenet  on  Christ's  saying : 
"  There  are  some  eunuchs  Avhich  were  so  born  from  their 
mother's  womb,  and  there  are  some  eunuchs  which  were 
made  eunuchs  of  men,  and  there  be  eunuchs  which  have 
made  themselves  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven's 
sake.   He  that  is  able  to  receive  it,  let  him  receive  it " 


2GG       THE  RUSSIAN  CHUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

(Matt,  xix.,  12).  They  believe  in  the  millennium,  and 
rely  upon  the  prophecies  and  upon  the  Apocalypse  for 
their  authority. 

For  the  consummation  of  tlieir  self-consecrating  sacri- 
fice, the  "  baptism  of  fire,"  they  prefer  that  men  should 
wait  until  they  have  passed  the  age  of  puberty;  they 
are  then  capable  of  judging  for  themselves,  and  the  oper- 
ation, being  then  more  dangerous  to  health,  implies  great- 
er devotion ;  it  is  rarely  infiicted  on  children.  The  mu- 
tilation may  be  complete  or  partial,  and  is  designated, 
accordingly,  either  as  the  "  Royal  Seal,"  "  Tsarskaia 
Petchat,"  or  as  the  "  Second  pureness,"  "  Ytoraia  Tchis- 
tota."  It  is  not  obligatory  u})on  women,  although  many 
voluntarily  submit  to  it ;  for  them  the  usual  ceremony 
consists  in  deforming,  or  destroying  the  breasts. 

While  they  re])udiate  marriage  in  principle,  they  do 
not,  in  the  interest  of  their  sect,  ignore  it  altogether. 
Some  among  them,  believing  that  they  only  are  the  elect 
of  God  and  depositaries  of  the  true  faith,  deem  them- 
selves authorized  by  a  higher  laAV  to  transgress  this  pre- 
cept, in  order  to  provide  for  the  transmission  of  their 
doctrines ;  they  delay  the  final  sacrificial  rite  until  they 
have  begotten  children,  vrhom  they  train  up  in  their  be- 
lief and  in  expectation  of  its  penalty.  A  son  of  theirs, 
who,  arriving  at  manhood,  should  rebel,  and  endeavor  to 
escape  his  fate,  becomes  a  renegade  and  a  traitor  against 
whom  every  hand  is  raised,  and  whose  life  is  in  jeopardy. 

They  are  zealous  propagators  of  their  creed,  in  order 
to  attain,  as  speedily  as  possible,  the  full  number  of  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  thousand  "  of  them  Avhich  are 
sealed  "  (Rev.  viii.,  4),  when  they  expect  the  Messiah  Avill 
come  to  estabhsh  his  kingdom,  and  give  the  empire  of 
the  world  to  his  saints. 

This  heresy,  which  is  the  most  modern  of  all,  probably 


THE  SKOPTSI,  OR  EUNUCHS. 


267 


owes  its  origin  to  influences  from  the  East,  slowly  filter- 
ing through  the  lower  ranks  of  the  population.  It  made 
its  appearance  as  a  distinct  sect  at  St.  Petersburg  about 
1770,  the  year  of  the  plague  at  Moscow.  Its  founder, 
Andrei  Selivanov,  died,  a  centenarian,  in  1832 ;  his  fol- 
lowers worship  him  as  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God. 
Their  religious  belief  and  their  practices  resemble  those 
of  the  Ivhlysti,  from  whom  they  sprang,  and  are  either 
an  exaggeration  of  the  doctrines  of  the  parent  sect,  or 
the  result  of  an  attempt  at  reform ;  an  ascetic  reaction 
against  the  license  and  sensuality  into  which  the  votaries 
of  Souslov  had  fallen. 

The  "  White  Doves,"  like  the  "  Men  of  God,"  base 
their  rehgious  system  upon  personal  inspiration  and 
prophecy,  and  rely  in  a  similar  manner  upon  bodily  ex- 
haustion, caused  by  violent  exertion,  to  produce  the  holy 
trance.  At  their  meetings,  which  they  call  "  Eadenie," 
"  Zeal,"  or  "  Earnestness,"  held  in  the  evening  or  at  early 
dawn,  the  disciples,  clad  in  long  linen  robes,  girded  about 
the  loins  Avith  girdles  of  peculiar  make,  worship  their 
Lord  seated  upon  a  throne,  and  listen  to  the  revelations 
of  those  whom  the  Spirit  moves. 

Proscribed  and  pursued  by  the  police,  they  avoid  de- 
tection by  maintaining  their  membership  of  the  Or- 
thodox Church,  and  scrupulously  conforming  to  its  or- 
dinances. 

The  peculiar  rite  enjoined  by  their  creed  is  not  merely 
an  act  of  asceticism ;  it  has  a  symbohc  sense  also,  and  is 
based  upon  a  singular  interpretation,  not,  however,  orig- 
inating with  them,  of  the  fall  of  Adam  and  Eve.  They 
aver  that  the  carnal  union  of  our  first  parents  Avas  the 
original  sin,  which  must  be  atoned  for  by  mutilation ; 
they  acclaimed  Selivanov  as  the  Redeemer,  and  his  emas- 
culation as  the  scriptural  atonement,  in  which  all  who 


2G8    THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  and  Russian  dissent, 

would  be  Scared  must  participate.  "While  they  rejected 
Jesus  as  the  Saviour  of  mankind,  and  deny  the  efficacy 
of  His  death  upon  the  cross,  they  recognize  Him  and  His 
apostles  as  precursors  of  Selivanov,  and  assert  that  mu- 
tilation was  taught  by  them  in  secret.  This  doctrine 
was  the  hidden  Eleusinian  mystery  of  Christ's  teachings ; 
as  in  time  it  became  corrupt,  or  was  forgotten,  the  re- 
demption of  the  Avorld  demanded  a  new  Saviour  to  preach 
and  practice  the  true  Gospel  in  all  its  purity  and  might, 
and  the  Son  of  God  became  again  incarnate  in  the  per- 
son of  their  prophet. 

This  impostor  appeared  during  the  reign  of  Catherine 
II. ;  of  his  previous  history  and  antecedents  nothing  pos- 
itive is  known ;  he  was  ignorant  and  ilhterate,  unable  to 
read  or  write,  and  was  probably  a  peasant  who  had  es- 
caped military  conscription  by  taking  refuge  with  the 
Khlysti,  among  whom  he  became  ])rominent.  An  aged 
prophetess,  Akoulina  Ivanovna,  who  presided  over  one 
of  their  communities,  recognized  him  by  inspiration,  and 
proclaimed  him  to  be  the  Son  of  God ;  his  followers  rap- 
idly increased,  and  attracted  suspicion ;  he  was  arrested, 
knouted,  and  exiled  to  Siberia,  from  whence  he  was  al- 
lowed to  return  by  Paul  I.  Besides  his  divine  character, 
he  assumed  that  of  temporal  lord,  and  like  the  Easkolnik 
Pougatchev,  claimed  to  be  Peter  III.,  who  had  not  been 
put  to  death,  as  supposed,  but  had  escaped  to  Irkutsk, 
and  a  soldier  had  suffered  in  his  place.  Sehvanov  de- 
clared that  Peter  was  the  incarnation  of  Christ,  who  had 
never  died,  but  was  immortal,  and  wandered  over  the 
world,  variously  and  at  various  times,  manifest  in  the 
flesh,  without  sex,  consecrated  by  God ;  the  fulfilment 
of  divine  grace  ("  ispolnen  blagodati "),  speaking  by  inspi- 
ration ;  the  Son  of  God,  but  not  God ;  revealed  in  due 
season  by  the  Father  to  His  true  children,  and  who  now 


THE  SKOPTSI,  OR  EUNUCHS. 


269 


appeared  again  incarnate  in  his  own  person  as  Christ  and 
Tsar.' 

The  history  of  Kussia  is  full  of  similar  impostures, 
which  have  always  found  ready  acce])tance  among  a 
people  credulous  and  excitable,  greedy  for  the  marvel- 
lous, and  ever  wildly  dreaming,  in  their  degradation  and 
misery,  of  a  deUverer  to  come. 

Selivanov  doubtless  thought  to  strengthen  his  spirit- 
ual pretensions  by  claiming  to  be  the  true  "White  Tsar," 
and  his  disciples,  in  their  Avorship,  addressed  him  as 
"  King  of  Kings  and  Lord  of  Lords  "  (Rev.  xix.,  IG). 

According  to  the  Skoptsi,  Paul  was  curious  to  see  the 
man  who  pretended  to  be  his  father,  and  recalled  him 
from  Siberia  for  that  purpose,  but  his  return  was  not 
triumphant ;  he  was  confined  as  a  lunatic  in  an  insane 
asylum,  and  recovered  his  liberty  only  under  Alexander 
I.,  at  the  intercession  of  a  Polish  noble,  Elinski,  who,  with 
a  few  others  in  high  position,  was,  in  secret,  a  convert  to 
his  creed. 

For  eighteen  years  longer,  favored  by  the  singular 
moral  state  of  Russian  society  at  that  period,  and  pro- 
tected by  the  influence  of  wealthy  partisans,  he  lived  at 
St.  Petersburg,  sedulously  laboring  to  spread  his  doc- 
trines, and  worshipped  by  his  patrons  as  God  and  Tsar. 
Finally,  in  1820,  he  was  confined  in  the  monastery  of 
Souzdal,  where,  imbecUe  from  old  age,  he  died  in  1832. 

The  Skoptsi  do  not  admit  his  death,  but  declare  that 
he  still  lives  in  the  depths  of  Siberia,  whence  he  will 
come,  at  the  appointed  time,  to  establisli  the  kingdom  of 
righteousness.  Some  of  them  believe  that  Napoleon  will 
marshal  the  angelic  hosts  who  Avill  surround  their  lead- 
er and  will  share  his  triumph.  Napoleon's  fame  has  left 


"  Haxtbausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  249. 


270       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

an  indelible  impression  upon  the  Kussian  popular  mind, 
and  there  are  sects,  obscure  and  little  known,  akin  to  the 
larger  mystic  bodies,  still  convinced  that  he  was  the  true 
Messiah,  who  is  to  come  again,  and  which  Avorship  be- 
fore his  image.  His  memory,  and  that  of  Peter  HI., 
who  is  confounded  with  Selivanov,  are  held  in  profound 
reverence  by  the  Skoptsi,  and  portraits  of  the  three  re- 
place among  them  the  holy  pictures  of  the  Orthodox. 
They  have  other  typical  emblems  of  their  faith,  and 
chief  among  them  are  representations  of  King  David 
dancing  before  the  ark,  and  of  the  crucifixion,  with  the 
figure  of  a  monk  upon  the  cross  instead  of  that  of  the 
Saviour. 

Notwithstanding  their  precautions,  the  Skoptsi  are  be- 
trayed by  their  pale,  sallow  cora])lexion,  their  scanty 
beard,  shrill  voice,  effeminate,  peculiar  gait,  and  hesitat- 
ing, wavering  look.  They  are  numerous  among  the 
money-changers  of  the  large  towns  ;  like  the  Jews,  they 
have  a  marked  predilection  for  pursuits  that  involve  the 
handling  of  coin.  Their  j^robity  and  their  financial  skill 
are  universally  recognized;  they  possess,  in  a  high  de- 
gree, the  practical  spirit  of  the  Great  Russian,  and  the 
mercantile  instincts  of  the  Easkolnik ;  their  eagerness  for 
gain,  and  their  success  in  its  acquisition,  are  proverbial. 
To  amass  wealth  is  their  engrossing  preoccupation  ;  sev- 
ered from  family  ties  and  affections,  passionless,  not 
tempted  as  other  men  are,  old  before  their  time,  they 
devote  a  life-long  energy  to  the  accumulation  of  prop- 
erty with  keen,  calculating,  systematic  perseverance. 
They  are  untiring  in  the  pro]\agation  of  their  belief,  and 
the  lavish  expenditure  of  the  wealth  they  delight  in  ac- 
quiring accounts  for  the  wide  diffusion  of  their  repulsive 
doctrines. 

Imprisonment  and  exile  are  insufficient  to  repress  their 


THE  SKOPTSI,  OR  EUNUCHS. 


271 


proselyting  zeal ;  they  have  been  forced  into  the  army ; 
Avhole  regiments  have  been  formed  of  their  adherents, 
and  sent  to  garrison  frontier  posts ;  entire  communities 
have  been  transported  to  the  Caucasus  and  to  Siberia,  or 
driven  to  seek  refuge  beyond  the  border ;  but  they  re- 
main steadfast  in  their  faith,  and  ardent  in  their  mission- 
ary labors,  patiently  awaiting  the  reappearance  of  their 
Lord  and  King,  and  their  numbers  increase  rather  than 
diminish.  Although  no  longer  molested,  if  they  refrain 
from  active  propagation  of  their  doctrines,  they  are  under 
strict  police  supervision ;  their  condition  is  inscribed  on 
their  passports,  and  all  who  lodge  or  employ  them  must 
notify  the  authorities. 

It  is  a  remarkable  anomaly  that  the  partisans  of  these 
unnatural  and  revolting  practices  are  usually,  in  the  or- 
dinary avocations  of  life,  the  most  respectable  and  hon- 
est of  men.'  They  are  frugal,  sober,  and  industrious ; 
they  avoid  meat  and  fish  ;  use  neither  spirits  nor  tobac- 
co ;  and  the  flesh  of  a  white  lamb,  with  bread  made  of 
white  flour,  consecrated  by  lying  in  the  grave  of  one  of 
their  saints,  serves  for  the  communion  feast,  which  they 
celebrate  on  the  first  day  of  Easter,  their  only  festival. 
Their  religious  services  are  conducted  Avith  propriety 
and  decorum ;  chaste  and  simple  hymns  are  sung,  of 
which  the  following,  quoted  by  Ilaxtliausen,  is  an  exam- 
ple : 

"  Hold  fast  ye  mariners  ! 
Let  not  the  ship  perisli  in  the  storm! 
The  llolj'  Spirit  is  with  us  ! 
Fear  not  the  breakers  !  fear  not  the  storm! 
Our  Father  and  Christ  is  with  us  ! 
Ilis  mother  Akoulina  Ivanovna  is  with  us  ! 
He  will  come  I  He  will  appear  ! 


'  W.  H.  Dixon,  "Free  Russia,"  p.  140. 


272       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

lie  will  sound  the  great  bell  of  the  Uspenski.' 

lie  will  collect  all  the  true  believers  together] 

He  will  plant  masts  that  will  not  fail! 

lie  will  set  sails  that  will  not  reud! 

lie  will  give  us  a  rudder  that  will  steer  us  safely! 

He  casts  his  anchor  in  a  safe  harbor! 

We  are  landed!  we  are  landed! 

The  Holy  Spirit  is  with  us  ! 

The  Holy  Spirit  is  among  us  ! 

The  Holy  Spirit  is  in  us  !" 

This  nautical  jihraseology  is  explained  by  the  system 
of  their  organization,  arranged  with  the  remarkable  apt- 
itude for  self-government  displayed  by  Russian  scliisraat- 
ics,  from  the  "  Old  Behevers  "  to  the  "  Men  of  God  "  and 
the  "  White  Doves." 

They  form  themselves  into  "  korabl,"  which  may  sig- 
nify either  "  ships  "  or  "  naves  of  a  church,"  and  their 
confederation  recalls  that  of  Free -Masonry  w^ith  its 
lodges ;  this  latter  institution  Avas  introduced  into  Eussia 
at  about  the  period  of  Selivanov's  appearance.' 

Each  korabl  comprises  the  disciples  of  a  city,  a  town, 
or  a  district,  and  is  under  the  charge  of  a  prophet  or 
prophetess,  whose  inspired  revelations  are  its  law  and 
guide.  That  of  St.  Petersburg,  ruled  over  by  Selivanov 
in  person,  was,  in  their  mystic  language,  the  Royal  Ship, 
having  for  its  pilot  and  commander  the  living  God,  who 
directed  the  evolutions  of  the  squadron  of  smaller  ves- 
sels. 

'  The  "Uspenski  Sabor,"  or  Great  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  at 
Moscow.    Uspenie,  the  Assumption. 
'  Haxthausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  249. 

^  Free-Masonry,  founded  in  Russia  by  Schwartz  and  Novikov,  was 
widely  extended,  and  had  considerable  influence  during  the  reigns  of 
Catherine  II.,  Paul  I.,  and  Alexander  I.  All  secret  societies,  and  Free- 
Masonry  with  them,  were  abolished  by  Nicholas  in  consequence  of 
Iheir  connection  with  the  insurrectionary  movement  of  1835. 


RATIONALISTIC  SECTS. 


273 


The  Skoptsi  still  form  a  close  corporation  with  secret 
signs  of  recognition,  one  of  which  is  said  to  be  a  red 
handkerchief  spread  over  the  knees,  and  which  they  strike 
with  tlie  right  hand.  This  distinguishing  mark  is  fre- 
quently seen  in  their  portraits  of  Peter  III.  and  of  Seli- 
vanov. ' 

The  Khlysti  and  the  Skoptsi,  with  their  various  alElia- 
tions,  can  scarcely  be  termed  Christian  denominations, 
or  even  heresies,  properly  speaking;  they  are  parodies 
of  Christianity,  with  their  special  saving  deities,  their 
own  dogmas  and  systems  of  morality,  reproducing  and 
exaggerating  the  heterogeneous  teachings  of  the  ancient 
Gnostic  creeds. 

In  opposition  to  these  mystic  sects  are  the  communi- 
ties animated  by  advanced  ideas  and  liberal  tendencies, 
similar  to  those  developed  in  modern  times,  among  civil- 
ized nations. 

In  endeavoring  to  escape  from  the  superstitions  and 
trammels  of  ritualism,  the  Russian  peasant  has  not  been 
swayed  solely  by  mystical  symbohsm,  dreams,  and  chi- 
meras ;  he  has  also  felt  the  influence  of  intelligent  re- 
flection, and,  by  the  exercise  of  his  sober  reasoning  fac- 
ulties, has  evolved  doctrines  and  beliefs  of  a  highly  phil- 
osopliic  and  rationalistic  nature. 

The  reformatory,  Protestant  aspirations  of  the  Rus- 
sian mind  are  exhibited  in  two  sects  of  similar  tenden- 
cies, connected  together  by  the  character  of  the  creeds 
they  profess,  as  also  in  their  historic  development,  and 
each  having  many  divisions  and  ramifications. 

They  are  the  "  Doukhobortsi,"  '  or  "  Champions  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,"  and  the  "  Molokani," '  or  "  Milk  Drinkers." 

'  Ilaxlhausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  251. 

'  From  doukh,  spirit,  and  borcts,  a  wrestler  or  champion. 
'  From  mololco,  milk. 
18 


274       THE  RUSSIAN  CUURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

The  latter  are  probably  so  named  because  they  refuse 
to  keep  the  Lenten  fasts,  and  partake  freely  of  milk,  and 
of  food  prepared  from  milk,  on  the  days  when  its  use  is 
prohibited  by  the  Orthodox  Church;  this  designation, 
which  is  contemptuously  applied  to  them,  is  also  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  the  name  of  the  Molotchnaya, 
the  Milky  Stream,  a  river  of  the  south  of  Russia,  so 
called  from  the  chalky  white  color  of  its  Avaters,  along 
the  banks  of  which  their  first  and  principal  communities 
were  originally  established. 

The  adherents  of  both  these  sects  are  distinguished  for 
their  utter  disregard  of  all  ritual,  and  of  the  traditionary 
religious  festivals,  fasts,  and  forms  of  which  the  Eussian 
people  generally  are  scrupulously  observant.  The  lines 
of  deraarkation  between  them  are  not  strictly  drawn, 
and  their  members  pass  frequently  from  one  to  the  oth- 
er. They  call  themselves  "  Istinie  Khristiane,"  "  True  " 
or  "  Spiritual  Christians,"  and  reject  all  external  practices 
and  ceremonies,  as  being,  in  their  nature,  materiahstic 
and  idolatrous. 

The  Douldiobortsi  reject  the  sacraments,  the  Molokani 
receive  them  only  in  their  spiritual  sense.  They  both 
appeal  to  reason  and  to  conscience  as  against  the  formal- 
ism and  superstitions  of  the  Orthodox  and  of  the  Easkol- 
nik,  empty  sources  of  endless  and  vain  disputes.  "  The 
Easknolnik,"  they  say,  "  will  die  a  martyr  for  the  right 
to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  two  fingers ;  we  do 
not  cross  ourselves  at  all,  either  with  two  or  with  three 
fingers;  we  strive  to  attain  to  a  better  knowledge  of 
God." 

The  Molokani,  Mke  the  Bezpopovtsi,  recognize  no  priest- 
hood, but  for  a  different  reason ;  not  because  the  Church 
has  lost  its  sacerdotal  power,  but  because,  in  the  true 
Church,  there  is  no  need  of  a  clergy.    What  the  "  Ko 


THE  MOLOKANI. 


275 


Priest "  deplores  as  a  calamity,  they  acclaim  as  righteous 
doctrine.  According  to  their  behef  there  is  no  bishoj), 
no  pontiff,  no  master  save  Christ ;  their  elders,  who  read 
and  expound  the  Word,  are  appointed  by  themselves,  as 
God-fearing  men,  whom  they  choose  as  directed  by  the 
apostle  Peter,  and  who  have  no  priestly  character  nor 
authority,  and  wear  no  special  garb. 

God  is  a  Spirit,  and  they  that  worship  Him  must  wor- 
ship Him  in  spirit  and  in  truth  "  (John  iv.,  2i) ;  this  is  the 
fundamental  maxim  of  their  creed,  which  they  apply  and 
follow  out  with  the  inflexible  logic  of  the  Eussian  peas- 
ant. All  ceremonious  observances  during  prayer,  the 
repeated  cross-signing,  the  "pokloni,"  or  genuflexions 
and  prostrations,  dear  to  the  heart  of  the  Easkolnik  and 
the  Orthodox,  they  abstain  from ;  the  holy  images,  which 
all,  save  the  most  fanatic  of  the  Bezpopo\i;si,  worship 
and  revere,  they  den}^  as  useless,  unmeaning  symbols. 
"  God  is  a  Spirit,"  they  repeat,  "and  images  are  but 
idols.  A  picture  is  not  Christ ;  it  is  but  a  bit  of  painted 
board.  We  believe  in  Christ,  not  a  Christ  of  brass,  nor 
of  silver,  nor  of  gold,  the  work  of  men's  hands,  but  in 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  Saviour  of  the  world." 

Their  idea  of  a  Church  is  according  to  the  words  of 
Christ :  "  Where  two  or  three  are  gathered  together  in 
My  name,  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of  them."  They  have 
no  sacred  edifices.  "  Solomon  built  himself  a  house,  but 
the  Almighty  dwells  not  in  temples  made  by  the  hands 
of  men  ;"  "  the  heart  of  man  is  God's  only  temple."  ' 

Their  services  are  simple  and  plain ;  they  meet  at  each 
other's  houses  to  listen  to  the  Scriptures,  repeat  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  sing  Psalms. 

They  acknowledge  the  sacraments  only  in  their  spirit- 


'  Ilaxtbauscn,  vol.  i.,  p.  283. 


27G       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

ual  sense ;  while  tliey  meet  and  break  bread  together  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  Last  Sujiper,  they  do  so  in  com- 
memoration of  the  event,  and  attacli  no  rehgious  or  mys- 
terious significance  to  the  act.  "  The  true  communion 
of  tlie  body  and  blood  of  Christ  is,"  they  say,  "  to  read 
and  meditate  upon  His  Word ;  all  else  is  vanity." 

Of  baptism  they  declare :  "  We  understand,  not  the 
earthly  water,  but  the  spiritual  cleansing  of  our  souls 
from  sin  in  faith,  and  the  destruction  of  the  old  Adam 
within  us,  with  all  his  works." 

Of  confession :  "  We  hold  by  Paul ;  confess  your  sins 
one  to  another,  and  pray  for  one  another ;  any  thing  fur- 
ther Ave  do  not  allow." 

Eegarding  prayers  for  the  dead,  they  are  silent. 
These  statements  are  taken  from  confessions  of  faith, 
drawn  up,  not  for  their  oAvn  use,  but  for  their  justification 
with  the  government,  and  may  be  liable  to  suspicion  in 
some  particulars,  but  they  are  corroborated  by  what  can 
be  ascertained  of  their  practices.  The  conclusion  of 
their  profession  is  thoroughly  Protestant  in  its  character. 
"  Besides  the  Holy  Sacraments,  we  accept  the  Word  of 
God  and  inward  faith  as  our  guides.  We  do  not  con- 
sider ourselves  as  not  sinful,  nor  as  hoi}',  but  work  out 
our  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling,  in  the  hope 
of  attaining  it  solely,  and  alone,  through  beUef  in  Jesus 
Christ,  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God,  and  the  fulfilment 
of  the  commands  of  the  Lord ;  we  have  no  power  of  our- 
selves to  effect  this,  but  obtain  it  only  through  living 
faith  in  our  Intercessor  and  Eedeemer,  Jesus  Christ."  ' 

The  origin  of  these  rationalistic  sects  is  obscure.  Kull- 
mann  was  burned  at  Moscow,  in  1C89,  for  teaching  the 
philosophy  of  his  master,  Jacob  Boehm ;  Procopius 


'  Haxthausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  284. 


THE  MOLOKANI  AND  DOUKHOBORTSI. 


277 


Lupkin  was  condemned,  in  1710,  for  asserting  that  the 
Church  had  lost  the  true  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  that 
he  had  been  appointed  to  set  it  right;  Dimitri  Tvari- 
tenev  was  convicted  of  spreading  Calvinistic  ideas,  by  a 
synod,  in  1711.  These  various  doctrines  may  have  aid- 
ed the  development  of  new  opinions,  but  the  Molokani 
themselves  pretend  to  date  from  the  sixteenth  century, 
when,  in  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  an  English  phy- 
sician introduced  among  Muscovite  friends  the  reachng 
and  study  of  the  Bible.  The  seed  fell  on  fertile  soil, 
and  from  it  sprang  a  reformation  more  radical  in  its 
principles  than  that  of  Luther  and  Calvin ;  a  Protestant- 
ism of  the  most  advanced  type,  rigid,  rational,  and  unita- 
rian, recognizing  God  as  supreme,  and  His  "Word  only 
as  law,  but  withholding  from  Christ  the  full  attributes 
of  the  Deity,  and  considering  the  Holy  Ghost  as  simply 
a  manifestation  of  Divine  Grace. 

These  ignorant  peasants,  in  reasoning  out  their  faith, 
seem  instinctively  to  have  arrived  at  conclusions  regard- 
ing the  unity  of  the  Godhead  similar  to  the  behef  of 
Locke  and  Channing  in  later  days. 

The  Doukhobortsi  evince  more  of  the  Oriental  spirit, 
and  were,  perhaps,  somewhat  influence<l  by  the  Bogomile 
heresies  of  the  Middle  Ages,  some  hints  of  which  may 
have  permeated  into  Russia  with  the  Bulgarian  colonies 
which  settled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Iviev  prior  to  the 
thirteenth  century,  during  the  wars  between  the  French 
empire  of  Constantinople,  the  Hungarians,  and  the  Turks.' 

'  The  Bogomilcs  were  followers  of  a  Bulgarian  doctor  named  Basil, 
who  rejected  the  Old  Testament  and  most  of  the  New;  denied  the  res- 
urrection of  Christ  and  the  m3'steries  of  the  Catholic  faith,  the  sacra- 
ments, the  necessity  of  a  Church  or  a  priesthood,  prohibited  marriage,  and 
preached  community  of  goods  and  of  women,  and  utter  reliance  on  the 
infinite  mercy  of  God.    The  name  of  the  sect  is  derived  from  the  Sla- 


27S      THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Molokani  are  more  sober  and 
practical,  more  positive  and  rational,  Avhile  those  of  the 
Doukhobortsi  have  a  strong  tinge  of  mysticism  and  nat- 
uralism. 

The  broad  principles  which  guide  both  these  bodies  of 
sectaries  may  be  readily  discerned,  but  the  exact  nature 
of  their  opinions,  especially  as  regards  the  Doukhobortsi, 
is  more  difficult  to  comjirehend.  They  are,  for  the  most 
part,  peasants,  with  little  or  no  education,  and  in  their 
own  minds,  doubtless,  their  belief  does  not  assume  the 
form  of  a  complete  or  perfectly  defined  system  of  the- 
ology. 

The  Milk  Drinkers  base  all  religion  upon  the  Bible. 
The  Champions  of  the  Spirit  treat  the  Inspired  Book 
with  less  respect,  and  look  beyond  its  teachings ;  they 
aver  that  Christ  preferred  the  spoken  to  the  written 
word,  and  that  every  man  is  a  gospel  unto  himself ;  "  the 
letter  killeth,  but  the  spirit  giveth  life "  (2  Cor.  iii.  C), 
and  they  consequently  pay  less  attention  to  the  strict 
construction  of  the  Scriptures;  most  of  the  Christian 
traditions  and  dogmas  they  either  reject  entirely  or  un- 
derstand in  a  symbolic  sense ;  they  also  reject  a  priest- 
hood, but  they  go  beyond  the  Milk  Drinkers  in  ascrib- 
ing divine  powers  to  their  leader,  whom  they  acclaim  as 
Christ.  They  seem  to  have  vaguely  forestalled  Hegel's 
method  of  interpreting  the  sacred  mysteries,  and  do  not 
consider  the  incarnation  as  an  isolated,  solitary  fact  in 
human  history,  but  as  an  ever-recurring  miracle  in  the 
life  of  every  Christian ;  in  each  one  Christ  lives,  teaches, 
suffers,  and  is  resuscitated,  and  the  consequences  which 
they  drew  from  this  allegorical  method  of  explanation 

vonic  words  "Bogh"  ("God")  and  "Milotti"  ("have  pity  upon 
me  ").  Basil  was  condemned  by  a  council  at  Constantinople,  in  1118, 
and  burned  at  the  stake. 


THE  MOLOKANI  AND  DOUKHOBORTSI.  279 

inclined  them  to  belief  in  metempsychosis.  This  doctrine 
of  an  ever-renewing  presence  of  the  Saviour  was  seized 
upon  and  advocated  to  his  own  advantage  by  Kapous- 
tine,  the  most  distinguished  of  their  leaders,  a  man  of 
genius,  originality,  and  eloquence,  who  ruled  like  a 
prophet  of  old  in  Israel.  He  taught  that  Christ  is  born 
again  in  every  believer,  that  God  is  in  every  one.  When 
God  descended  into  Jesus,  as  Christ,  He  chose  Him  be- 
cause Jesus'  soul  was  the  purest  and  most  perfect  of  hu- 
man souls,  and  being  favored  by  God  above  all  human 
souls,  it  had,  from  generation  to  generation,  animated  new 
bodies,  always  retaining,  by  God's  will,  a  remembrance 
of  its  former  condition,  and  every  man  in  whom  it  re- 
sided was  conscious  that  Jesus'  soul  was  within  him.  In 
the  early  days  it  lived  in  the  persons  of  the  popes  and 
heads  of  the  Church,  who  were,  for  this  reason,  univer- 
sally acknowledged,  but  later  the  Church  fell  into  error, 
and  this  divinely  appointed  chief  was  thrust  aside  by 
human  passions  and  ambition ;  his  place  usurjjed,  he 
wandered  away,  unrecognized  by  all  save  a  chosen  few, 
but  always  existing.  "  Thus,"  said  he,  "  Sylvan  Kolisni- 
kov,  whom  the  older  among  you  knew,  was  Jesus,  but 
noAV,  as  truly  as  the  heaven  is  above  me  and  the  earth 
under  my  feet,  I  am  the  true  Jesus  Christ  your  Lord !" 
and  his  followers  fell  down  and  worshipped  him. 

He  introduced  among  them  the  principle  of  commu- 
nity of  goods,  and  under  his  firm  and  sagacious  direction 
they  rapidly  increased  in  numbers  and  prosperity,  their 
villages  along  the  Molotchnaya  river  were  named  after 
the  Christian  virtues,  as  Terpenie  (Patience),  Bogdanov- 
ka  (The  Gift  of  God),  TroVtchatka  (The  Trinity),  Novos- 
passkaya  (The  New  Salvation),  etc. ;  in  1833  they  counted 
about  four  thousand  inhabitants.'    A  small  number 


'  Haxthausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  289. 


2S0       THE  RUSSIAN  CIIUKCII  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 


among  them,  called  "  Obstchii,"  or  "  Communists,"  car- 
ried their  theories  to  extremes,  and  advocated  commu- 
nity of  women,  as  well  as  of  property,  but  their  views 
were  never  generally  accepted. 

Like  the  Quakers  and  Moravians,  both  the  Molokani 
and  the  Doukhobortsi  are  strongly  prejudiced  against 
all  oaths  and  against  mihtary  service.  "War  is  utterly 
opposed  to  their  ideas  of  charity  and  brotherly  love. 
The  radical  nature  of  their  rehgious  belief  influences 
their  opinions  on  social  and  poUtical  questions,  and  as 
their  inclinations  are  democratic,  even  communistic,  they 
have  been  accused  of  preaching  resistance  to  all  author- 
ity, temporal  as  well  as  spiritual,  and  of  giving  refuge  in 
their  villages  to  criminals  and  fugitives  from  justice ;  but 
Avhile  this  is  an  exaggeration,  socialistic  opinions  have 
aroused  among  them  a  general  expectation  of  the  millen- 
nium. They  have  dreams  of  a  regenerated  world,  of  an 
"  empire  of  Ararat,"  soon  to  come,  when  peace  and  right- 
eousness shall  prevail.  Although  they  passively  submit 
to  the  present  order  of  things,  they  do  not  sympathize 
with  it,  and  cherish  obscure  traditions  of  a  Western  hero, 
the  "  Hon  of  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,"  destined  to  over- 
throw the  false  emperor  and  restore  the  throne  of  the 
White  Tsar,  The  fame  of  Napoleon  awakened  their 
hopes,  and  it  is  said  that,  in  1812,  they  sent  a  deputa- 
tion to  inquire  of  him  if  indeed  he  were  the  deliverer 
announced  by  the  prophets. 

The  adherents  of  both  these  sects  have,  by  the  tes- 
timony of  all  who,  either  in  official  or  private  capacity, 
have  known  them,  always  been  distinguished  for  hon- 
esty, sobriety,  industry,  and  peaceful  obedience  to  the 
law.  The  government  has  frequently  interfered  to  pre- 
vent the  extension  of  their  doctrines,  and  has  transport- 
ed their  settlements  hither  and  thither  to  isolate  them, 


THE  MOLOKANI  AXD  DOUKHOBORTSI.  281 

but,  wherever  established,  they  have  invariably  evinced 
the  same  docile  submission  and  useful  qualities.  Agri- 
culture is  their  favorite  pursuit ;  they  have  been  active 
pioneers  in  the  southern  steppes,  making  the  wilderness 
to  blossom  like  the  rose,  creating  httle  republics,  ani- 
mated by  a  strong  theocratic  spirit,  realizing,  as  it  is 
possible  only  in  small  communities,  imbued  with  ardent 
faith  and  under  strict  moral  discipHne,  the  Utopian  theo- 
ries of  practical  sociahsm. 

Their  flourishing  colonies  on  the  Molotchnaya  river 
fell  into  anarchy  and  disorder  at  the  disappearance  of 
their  leader,  Kapoustine,  about  ISl-i;  he  was  accused  of 
attempts  at  proselytizing,  and  thrown  into  prison.  Al- 
though he  was  soon  afterwards  Hberated,  nothing  posi- 
tive is  known  of  his  subsequent  career.  His  son  and 
grandson,  who  succeeded  him  in  turn  as  the  Christ,  were 
weak  and  inefficient,  and  all  authorit}"  fell  into  the  hands 
of  a  council  of  elders,  who  were  accused  of  frightful  and 
revolting  practices,  substantiated  by  a  government  in- 
vestigation in  1834.'  The  emperor  Nicholas,  always  in- 
tolerant of  Dissent,  seized  upon  this  pretext  to  break  up 
their  settlements,  and  in  1840  ordered  the  transportation 
to  the  Caucasus  of  all,  both  Molokani  and  Doukhobortsi, 
who  refused  to  join  the  established  Church. 

In  their  new  home  the  Molokani,  less  extravagant  than 
the  others,  have,  by  their  frugaUty  and  industrv,  again 
built  up  thriving  and  prosperous  villages. 

Among  the  reformatory  Protestant  sects  there  is  one 
with  Jewish  tendencies,  recruited  chiefly  among  the 
lower  population,  whose  history  is  obscure,  whose  doc- 
trines are  but  little  known,  but  which  merits  notice  from 
the  singular  fact  of  its  existence  amid  a  people  obsti- 


'  Ilaxlhausen,  vol.  i.,  p.  291. 


282  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

nately  and  universally  hostile  to  the  Israelitish  race.  Its 
distinguishing  characteristic  is  their  substitution  of  Sat- 
urday, the  Jewish  Sabbath,  for  Sunday,  and  its  adherents 
are  accordingly  designated  as  "  Soubbotniki,"  or  "  Sab- 
batarians." 

They  do  not  pretend  to  know  from  whence  they  derive 
their  belief,  to  which  they  are  ardently  attached,  and, when 
questioned  by  the  authorities,  attempt  no  explanation, 
but,  like  the  Kaskolniks  of  old,  take  refuge  in  passive 
and  obstinate  resistance.  "  It  is  the  creed  of  our  fathers ; 
leave  us  that,  and  we  will  submit  to  all  else,"  is  their 
reply. 

Jews  and  Jewish  sects  have  existed  in  Russia  from 
time  immemorial,  and  these  Sabbatarians  may  be  the 
successors  of  the  Judaizing  heretics  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, whose  doctrines,  at  that  period,  penetrated  among 
the  upper  clergy  of  Novgorod,  and,  for  a  moment,  threat- 
ened the  stability  of  the  Orthodox  Church ;  or  possibly 
they  may  be  descendants  of  Jewish  families,  converted 
long  ago  by  force,  or  from  selfish  motives  of  interest,  and 
who  preserve  among  themselves  the  traditions  of  their 
ancestors.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  southwest,  near 
the  PoUsh  provinces,  where  Jews  are  numerous  and  Jew- 
ish influence  is  strong. 

The  denial  of  the  Trinity,  common  to  the  reforming 
sects,  has  inclined  some  of  them  towards  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation, and,  in  the  study  of  the  Bible,  they  have  given 
preference  to  the  Old  Testament  over  the  ISTew.  Not- 
Avithstanding  the  hatred  and  contempt  felt  by  the  com- 
mon people  for  the  Jews,  this  point  of  contact  in  their 
rehgious  belief  has  inspired  efforts  for  a  reconciliation  of 
the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  creeds.  Recently  Nicholas 
'  Ilyne,  a  learned,  eloquent,  but  visionary  man,  was  con- 
fined in  the  Solovetsk  monastery,  on  the  White  Sea,  for 


ERRATIC  AND  RECENT  SECTS. 


283 


the  crime  of  preaching  a  gospel  which,  in  suppressing 
ahlve  the  dogmas  and  rites  peculiar  to  Church  and  Syna- 
gogue, should  unite  them  both  in  one  faith,  based  on 
belief  in  the  Unity  of  God  and  on  righteousness  of  hfe.' 

The  servile  formalism  of  the  Kaskolnik,  the  extrava- 
gant mysticism  of  the  Khlysti,  the  gross  asceticism  of 
the  Skoptsi,  the  reformatory  radicalism  of  the  Protestant 
sects,  all  bear  witness  to  the  seething  agitation  and  dis- 
tressing anxieties  which  disturb  the  popular  mind  in 
Russia.  In  its  groping  after  the  truth  it  is  borne  hither 
and  thither,  towards  rituahsm,  mysticism,  or  rationalism. 
Ilowever  numerous  and  diverse  the  old  paths  indicated 
by  rehgious  enthusiasm,  they  have  not  sufficed  to  con- 
tent the  aspirations  of  an  eager  and  imaginative  race, 
BtiU  seeking,  in  questions  of  faith,  as  in  other  great  prob- 
lems, the  true  and  final  solution.  Sects  are  constantly 
arising  and  disappearing.  As  old  creeds  die  out  new 
ones  are  being  born.  In  the  active  effervescence  of  a  vig- 
orous people,  young  in  civilization,  freshly  emancipated 
from  ancient  servitude,  mental  and  corporeal,  stiU  inex- 
perienced and  undisciplined,  brought  into  sudden  contact 
with  modern  progress  and  ideas,  while  yet  strongly  im- 
bued with  old  prejudices  and  superstitions,  imposture 
and  fanaticism  assume  the  language  of  inspiration,  fa- 
vored by  the  religious  instincts  of  the  masses,  and  feebl}'' 
opposed  by  the  doubting  spirit  of  the  few.  Popular 
credulousness  and  individual  scepticism  combined  pro- 
duce astonishing  and  contradictory  results. 

Striking  characteristics  of  the  Russian  people,  who, 
thougli  ignorant,  are  naturally  intelligent  and  quick,  are 
their  childish  simplicity,  their  naive  enthusiasm,  their  fa- 
cile credulity  ;  they  are  still  capable  of  welcoming  false 


•  Dixon,  "  Free  Russia,"  p.  134 


2S4       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Christs  and  false  tsars  ;  the  most  fabulous  stories  yet  have 
credence,  and  the  most  barefaced  m3'stifications  find  dupes. 

In  1874,  scarcely  at  a  day's  journey  from  the  capital, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Pskov,  it  was  currently  reported, 
and  actually  believed,  that  the  government  had  the  in- 
tention of  sending  five  thousand  young  girls  to  the  Black 
Sea  for  distribution  among  the  Arabs,  and  of  bringing 
back  as  many  swarthy  maidens  to  fill  their  places.  Mar- 
riage became  an  epidemic  throughout  the  district,  and 
every  youth  or  damsel,  of  suitable  years,  was  quickly 
provided  with  a  mate  to  escape  either  deportation  or  a 
copper-colored  wife.  An  inquiry  established  the  fact 
that  the  tale  originated  with  an  innkeeper  named  lakov- 
lev,  as  an  ingenious  method  of  increasing  his  custom,  in- 
asmuch as,  at  a  marriage  ceremony,  the  tavern  is  as  well 
patronized  as  the  church. 

If  the  fable  have  its  religious  side,  it  is  the  more  read- 
ily believed.  In  the  same  vicinity  a  sect  was  discovered, 
in  1872,  composed  almost  entirely  of  women,  the  crea- 
tion of  a  runawa}''  monk  named  Seraphim.  Its  prose- 
lytes were  called  the  "  Strijenisti,"  or  the  "  Shorn,"  as  at 
their  initiation  their  hair  was  cropped,  and  the  sale  of 
their  tresses  was  a  source  of  income  to  its  founder.  His 
peculiar  doctrine,  which  Avas  the  special  allurement, 
taught  that  sin  must  precede,  and  is  an  indispensable 
preliminary  to  atonement ;  as  their  chief,  he  provided  his 
disciples  with  the  means  of  grace. 

Similar  instances  abound,  and  explain  the  severity  of 
the  Eussian  code  against  false  prophets  and  religious  im- 
postors. 

Besides  rogues  and  charlatans,  there  are  many  who 
sincerely  beheve  in  their  mission,  who  have  a  devotion- 
al craze,  which  imposes  upon  a  people  whose  emotions 
are  easily  aroused,  and  who  share  the  belief,  common 


ERRATIC  AND  RECENT  SECTS. 


285 


throughout  the  East,  that  the  insane  are  pecuharly 
blessed  of  God,  and  possess  his  Holy  Spirit.  Prophecy 
is  the  general  characteristic  of  sects  founded  by  these 
enthusiasts  or  demoniacs.  The  revelations  are  of  di- 
verse nature,  enunciated  in  diverse  ways.  They  pro- 
nounce the  actual  fulfilment  of  scriptural  promises  and 
threats,  or,  predicting  the  future,  they  deal  Avith  the 
mysteries  of  heaven  and  hell,  and  proclaim  the  approach- 
ing end  of  the  world  and  the  coming  of  Christ.  Yague, 
incoherent,  fluent  declamations,  clothed  in  ambiguous, 
but  terse  and  Biblical,  language,  are  devoutly  received 
as  inspired  utterances,  and  are  personally  appHed  by 
credulous  and  imaginative  listeners. 

Women  are  especially  endowed  with  the  gifts  of  ^ireach- 
ing  and  prophesying.  The  Kussian  peasant  looks  upon 
them  as  inferior  beings  in  the  usual  avocations  of  life, 
but  concedes  to  their  feebler  practical  intelligence  greater 
powers*  of  comprehension  of  divine  influences,  and  great- 
er susceptibility  to  them.  lie  considers  religion  as  essen- 
tially a  domestic  matter,  and,  as  such,  especially  within 
the  domain  of  the  weaker  sex.  These  female  leaders  of- 
ten bear  the  title  of  "  Bogoroditsa  " — "  Holy  Virgin,"  or 
"  Mother  of  God,"  which  is  taken  in  a  mystical  sense,  or 
sometimes  literally,  by  those  who  are  awaiting  a  new 
Messiah.  These  "  Virgins,"  or  "  Mothers,"  are  usually 
accompanied  by  a  "  Christ,"  but  often  exercise  an  author- 
ity equal  to  or  superior  to  his.  Souslov,  among  the  Khlys- 
ti,  and  Selivanov,  among  the  Skoptsi,  each  had  a  "  Holy 
Mother,"  and  their  successors  likewise.  Akoulina  Ivan- 
ovna,  the  first  Bogoroditsa  of  the  Skoptsi,  is  still  invoked 
and  Avorshipped  with  divine  honors ;  their  traditions  de- 
clare her  to  have  been  the  Empress  Elizabeth,  and,  in 
defiance  of  history,  the  mother  of  Peter  III.,  whom  they 
confound  with  Selivanov. 


286       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT, 

Youth,  beauty,  or  even  virtue  are  secondary  consid- 
erations ;  Akoulina  was  very  aged  when  she  ])roclaimed 
Selivanov,  and  of  her  successors  many  have  been  of  ma- 
ture years  and  of  dubious  reputations,  owing  tlieir  ele- 
vation to  talent  for  intrigue,  or  gift  of  prophecy,  or  a 
fluent  tongue. 

The  predominance  of  female  influence  in  matters  of 
religion  cannot  be  attributed  to  indifference  on  the  part 
of  the  men,  nor  is  it  pecuhar  either  to  Russia  or  to  llus- 
sian  sects.  In  England  and  America  the  Shakers  and 
similar  denominations  have  had  at  their  head  a  "  moth- 
er "  or  a  "  bride,"  the  "  Lamb's  Avife  "  (Eev.  xxi.,  9) ;  and 
the  practice  seems  a  natural  consequence  of  the  more 
emotional,  excitable  temperament  of  the  "  pious  "  sex. 

The  ever-changing  manifestations  of  the  spirit  of  un- 
rest pervading  the  Russian  people  present  a  dreary  spec- 
tacle, as  monotonous  in  its  general  character  as  it  is  di- 
versified in  its  special  aspects.  They  are  as  evanescent 
as  clouds  flitting  over  a  landscape ;  scarcely  more  per- 
sistent or  more  definite.  Every  important  crisis,  every 
national  event,  evokes  a  corresponding  spiritual  move- 
ment to  satisfy  the  aspirations  or  emotions  of  the 
moment. 

It  was  natural  to  suppose  that  the  abolition  of  serf- 
dom, by  removing  the  heaviest  grievance  bearing  upon 
the  people,  Avould  have  been  a  fatal  blow  to  sectarian 
protestations  against  existing  evils,  but,  after  a  short  lull 
of  expectation,  they  were,  on  the  contrary,  aroused  by  it 
to  new  life  and  productive  energy.  The  discontent  of 
the  peasantry  at  the  conditions  affixed  to  the  })urchase 
of  land  found  vent  in  demonstrations  taking  religious 
form,  and  based  on  religious  and  Bibhcal  grounds. 

At  Perm,  in  1866,  Pousclikine,  a  small  burgher  of  un- 
sound mind,  became  notorious  by  proclaiming  that  the 


RECENT  SECTS. 


287 


"  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  all  that  therein  is  "  (Deut.  x., 
14) ;  and  that  "  the  seed  of  the  righteous  shall  inherit 
the  earth  "  (Psa.  xxv.,  13).  He  thereupon  founded  a  sect 
and  preached  the  doctrine  that  enfranchised  serfs  were 
entitled  to  the  land  by  right,  without  payment  and  with- 
out rent.'  Elsewhere  equal  distribution  of  land  was  ad- 
vocated as  ordained  by  Scripture,  and  peasants  refused  to 
pay  taxes,  on  the  plea  of  revelations  from  St.  John  and  St. 
Yarvara  in  the  seventh  heaven ;  that  the  promised  days 
had  come  when  "  God  should  wipe  away  all  tears  from 
their  eyes,"  and  the  "  former  things  had  passed  away  " 
(Eev.  xxi.,  4). 

Similar  misconception  of  the  emancipation  led  to  op- 
position all  over  the  empire  to  the  neu^  regulations  re- 
garding the  tenure  of  land,  and  the  peasant  evinced  a 
comprehension  of  his  material  interests  as  keen  as  it  was 
unfounded,  and  as  strong  as  was  his  reverence  for  divine 
injunctions. 

Movements  of  this  nature,  however,  which  invariably 
assume  a  rehgious  guise,  need  only  police  interference 
for  their  suppression,  but  they  are,  in  their  form  of  man- 
ifestation, indicative  of  the  inveterate  habit  of  the  Kus- 
sian  peasant  to  connect  every  event  with  religion. 

The  sects  that  have  come  to  hght  within  the  last  few 
years  are  generally  radical  in  both  their  political  and 
moral  aspect. 

They  may  be  genericaUy  classed  under  the  two  heads 
already  specified,  as  either  mystical  or  rationalistic,  and 
whereas  formerly  tlie  first  named  were  the  more  prolific 
and  prosperous,  at  present  the  latter  are  the  more  nu- 
merous and  important.  The  recent  manifestations  are 
comparatively  petty  and  obscure,  hmited  in  their  extent 


'  DixoD,  "  Free  Russia,"  p.  130. 


2S8       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSL^  DISSENT. 

and  influence.  A  few  illustrations  will  suffice  to  indi- 
cate their  nature,  "which  exhibits  the  singularly  contra- 
dictory tendencies  still  existing  among  the  people,  rang- 
ing from  gross  materialism,  combined  Avith  fanciful  mys- 
ticism, to  exalted  spirituality  and  rationalism. 

In  1866  the  "  Tchislennilci,"  the  "  Counters,"  or  "  Enu- 
merators," ])roclaimed,  in  the  government  of  Saratov,  a 
new  revelation  contained  in  a  book  brought  down  from 
lieaven  by  angels.  Their  leader  was  an  illiterate  peas- 
ant who  preached  a  new  gospel  to  the  effect  that  God's 
people  must  be  "  counted"  and  set  apart,  that  the  order 
of  time  had  been  disturbed,  holy  festivals  and  fast  days 
were  wrongly  calculated,  and  hours  which  should  be 
sacred  to  the  Lord  were  profaned  by  secular  work.  They 
kept  Wednesday  as  the  day  of  rest,  instead  of  Sunday, 
and  celebrated  Easter  on  Ash-Wednesday.  They  reject- 
ed the  priesthood,  and  held  that  every  believer  may  ad- 
minister the  sacraments ;  they  declared  the  established 
Church  to  be  an  institution  of  Satan's  devising,  ridiculed 
its  ceremonies,  and  cursed  it  with  all  belonging  to  it. 
Their  doctrines  are  said  to  resemble  those  of  the  rene- 
gade monk  Seraphim,  and  teach  that  sin  is  the  only  way 
to  salvation,  the  necessary  prelude  to  pardon.  In  prac- 
tice they  seem  to  unite  the  ritualism  of  the  Old  Believers 
with  the  radicalism  of  the  Milk  Drinkers,  and  the  license 
of  the  Jumpers. 

In  the  government  of  Tambov  a  small  burgher,  named 
Panov,  gave  himself  out  as  Christ,  and  collected  a  band 
of  followers  who  claimed  to  be  the  only  pure  and  right- 
eous ones,  and  held  themselves  carefully  aloof  from  a 
world  of  sinners  doomed  to  hell-fire. 

At  Troitsa  and  Zlotooust,  the  "  Pliasouni,"  or  "  Dan- 
cers," appeared  in  1870 ;  ostensibly  belonging  to  the 
Church,  but  following  the  lead  of  a  male  and  a  female 


RECENT  SECTS. 


289 


prophet  who  preached  doctrines  similar  to  those  of  the 
Khlj'sti. 

In  1872,  at  Belevski,  an  army  officer  proclaimed  a 
creed  based  upon  that  of  the  Skoptsi. 

Among  the  sects  of  the  other  category,  which  are  both 
spiritualistic  and  rationalistic,  there  is  greater  variety  of 
opinions ;  they  range  from  the  most  abstract  mysticism 
to  negation  of  all  rehgion. 

The  "  Xj'emolyaki,"  or  "  Prayerless  People,"  content 
themselves  with  inward  meditation,  without  any  out- 
ward expression  or  ceremony.  The  "  Bezslovestnie,"  or 
the  "  Dumb,"  abstain  from  speech  altogether.  The 
"  Moltchalniki,"  or  the  "  Taciturn,"  push  their  extrava- 
gance to  denial  of  all  religious  belief ;  they  reject  the 
Bible  and  all  trachtions ;  recognize  no  priesthood  nor 
Church ;  have  no  forms,  ritual,  nor  prayer ;  disbelieve  in 
a  future  life  and  in  God,  and  carry  their  principle  of 
negation  to  extremes.  Every  man  is  a  revelation  and 
an  authority  to  himself,  which  suffice  for  the  present 
day. 

Another  sect  worship  the  portrait  of  the  "  Beatified  " 
Redeemer,  and  give  themselves  up  to  the  holy  ecstasy 
which  its  fixed  contemplation  arouses.  The  object  of 
their  adoration  is  a  picture  in  the  Troi'tsa  monastery,  of 
which  the  legend  is  that  a  very  pious  Byzantine  empe- 
ror felt  the  greatest  longing  to  behold  the  face  of  the 
Saviour,  and  wearied  Heaven  with  his  prayers,  which  at 
last  Avere  ansvrered.  In  a  dream  Christ  appeared  to  him 
in  the  glory  of  His  Transfiguration;  before  vanishing 
from  his  sight  He  pressed  to  His  face  a  cloth  lying  upon 
the  em])eror's  bed,  and  in  the  morning,  when  the  empe- 
ror awoke,  he  found  upon  the  cloth  the  likeness  which 
he  had  beheld  in  his  vision. 

It  is  the  counterpart  of  the  legend  of  the  Western 
19 


290       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

Church,  and  of  St.Yeronica's  napkin,  upon  which  was 
reproduced  the  features  of  the  "  Suffering  "  Redeemer,' 

The  sect  of  the  "  Vozdoukhantsi,"  or  the  "  L-ighing 
Ones,"  was  discovered  about  1871,  among  tlie  ])etty  mer- 
chants and  traders  of  the  city  of  Kalouga.  Their  founder 
was  Ivan  Tirkhanov,  a  shoemaker,  Avho  preached  the  ab- 
rogation of  all  Church  ceremonies  and  the  ritual ;  he 
declared  the  sacraments  to  be  vain  and  useless  in  them- 
selves, and  that  they  should  be  taken  only  in  a  figurative 
spiritual  sense.  Man  needs  no  intermediary  between 
himself  and  his  Maker ;  real  religion  consists  in  mute 
adoration,  in  mental  communion.  Prayer  uttered  by  the 
lips,  the  spoken  word,  is  too  gross  and  too  material  for 
the  worship  of  God,  who  is  a  Spirit ;  in  the  heart  alone 
should  mortals  draw  near  their  Creator ;  the  sigliings  of 
a  contrite  heart,  the  aspirations  of  a  devout  soul  only 
are  acceptable  in  His  sight,  and  these  sectaries,  with  the 
simple-minded,  credulous  realism  of  the  Russian,  appeal 
to  the  Deity,  and  adore  Ilim  by  silent,  long-drawn 
breathings  and  heavy  sighs. 

The  "  Stundists  "  appeared  first  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Odessa,  where  there  are  many  German  Lutheran  com- 
munities, and  are  probably  the  earliest,  perhaps  the  only, 
sect  of  a  distinctively  foreign  origin,  and  having  direct 
affiliation  with  Western  Protestantism ;  their  name,  as 
well  as  their  doctrine,  is  German. 

Among  the  Teutonic  colonists  were  sectaries,  under 
the  leadership  of  Michael  Ratuzhny,  who  called  them- 
selves the  "  Friends  of  God"  ("  Gottesfreunde"),  and  who 
met  together  for  the  reading  of  the  Bible  during  their 
leisure  hours  ("  Stunden  "),  whence  their  appellation  of 
"  Stundists."    They  endeavored  to  spread  their  doc- 


'  Haxthauscn,  vol.  i.,  pp.  77  and  255. 


THE  STUNDISTS. 


291 


trines  and  practices  among  Christians  of  all  denomina- 
tions, and,  about  1870,  their  disciples  were  found  in  Little 
Russia.  The  dissemination  of  their  teachings  in  this  por- 
tion of  the  empire  is  remarkable,  from  the  fact  that  Little- 
Russians  have  generally  evinced  but  slight  interest  in 
religious  movements  without  the  pale  of  the  Church,  and 
feel  no  sympathy  for  the  foreign  population  in  their  midst. 
From  Odessa  and  the  government  of  Kherson  the  Stun- 
dists  spread  into  the  adjoining  provinces  of  Ekaterinoslav 
and  Kiev.  Their  religion  appears  to  be  a  Protestantism 
of  a  very  decided  type,  and  in  the  few  church  ceremo- 
nies which  they  retain,  such  as  a  second  baptism  for 
adults,  they  resemble  the  Anabaptists  and  Mennonites  of 
Germany.  They  reject  external  observances,  fasts,  im- 
ages, the  invocation  of  the  saints,  and  all  the  rites  of 
Oi-thodox  worship  as  simply  useless  and  unnecessary ; 
they  seem  to  be  animated  more  by  a  spirit  of  calculation 
and  of  economy,  of  indifference  to  outward  forai,  rather 
than  by  religious  scruples  or  any  deep-seated  repugnance 
to  church  ceremonies ;  they  appear  to  regard  them  as 
unprofitable  and  a  needless  waste  of  time,  rather  than  as 
being  in  themselves  impious  or  idolatrous. 

In  private  life  they  are  distinguished  for  sobriety,  fru- 
gality, and  industry  ;  they  evince  remarkable  intelligence 
in  the  management  of  their  affairs,  are  obedient  to  the 
laws,  and  exact  in  the  payment  of  taxes  and  imposts, 
but,  in  spite  of  official  pressure,  they  refuse  to  have  re- 
course to  the  clergy,  whom  they  consider  to  be  a  costly 
and  useless  parasitical  excrescence.  They  advocate  the 
equal  repartition  of  the  land,  are  inclined  to  socialistic 
opinions,  and  form  a  community  of  brothers  and  sisters, 
all  enjoying  equal  rights. 

The  policy  of  the  government  towards  them  has  been 
similar  to  that  adopted  with  the  Molokani,  and  has  pro- 


292       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

duced  similar  results.  Instead  of  preventing  the  spread 
of  their  doctrines  it  has  had  rather  the  contrary  effect, 
as,  by  breaking  up  their  settlements  and  distributing 
them  through  the  Caucasus  and  Siberia,  it  has  sent  forth, 
in  the  persons  of  the  exiles,  an  army  of  zealous  mission- 
aries. 

The  sects  of  which  mention  has  been  made  are  but  a 
few  of  the  many  recently  brought  to  light.  The  vitahty 
and  persistent  energy  of  the  sectarian  spirit  are  remark- 
able, inasmuch  as  most  of  the  causes  provoking  its  man- 
ifestation either  exist  no  longer,  or  are  rapidly  disappear- 
ing. Effects,  however,  are  often  ])erceived  after  the  first 
imi)ulse  has  ceased  to  act.  Sect  begets  sect,  as  the  plant 
is  reproduced  by  its  yearly  seed.  It  is  hopeless  to  ex- 
pect to  stifle  the  spiritual  aspirations  of  a  vigorous, 
quick-witted,  eager  race,  and  to  arrive  at  the  dead  level 
of  unity  of  faith  and  obedience  to  one  Church,  which 
the  emperor  Nicholas  conceived  to  be  the  consummation 
most  devoutly  to  be  wished ;  nor  is  such  an  achievement 
desirable ;  but  to  check  the  extravagances  resulting  from 
superstition  and  ignorance,  to  direct  the  restless  spirit  of 
the  people  to  proper  channels  and  towards  a  legitimate 
end,  demands  wide  diffusion  of  education  and  knowledge, 
for  "ignorance  is  the  mother  of  devotion;"  moreover 
the  gaji  still  yawning  between  the  extremes  of  Russian 
society  must  be  bridged  over  by  liberal  measures,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  spirit  and  requirements  of  the  age. 
It  is  a  work  of  time  and  patience,  for  the  Russian  people 
are  tenacious  and  slow  to  change.  The  century  and  a 
half,  since  the  days  of  Peter  the  Great,  have  not  sufficed 
to  cement  the  nation  together  as  a  homogeneous  whole, 
and  less  than  a  generation  has  elapsed  since  the  abolition 
of  serfdom  inaugurated  the  present  era  of  reform. 

In  further  explanation  of  the  present  mental  state  of 


ATTITUDE  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT. 


293 


the  Russian  people,  and  for  better  comprehension  of  the 
continued  eccentric,  fantastic  manifestations  of  a  rehg- 
ious  character,  it  may  be  observed  that  while  the  ulti- 
mate results  of  the  thorough  transformation  of  national 
life,  still  progressing,  will  be  to  calm  and  pacify  the  agi- 
tation which  it  excites,  for  the  time  being  it  tends  to 
encourage  and  stimulate  aspirations  for  new  things,  and 
these  aspirations,  in  accordance  with  the  character  of  the 
race,  invariably  assume  religious  guise  and  expression. 
Although  socialistic  ideas,  and  tendencies  of  an  economic 
and  practical  nature,  are  engrafted  upon  the  doctrinal 
teachings  of  man\'  of  the  new  sects,  there  is  among  the 
people  a  deep-seated,  devotional  craving  which  the  for- 
malism of  the  Easkol,  and  the  rigidity  of  the  State 
Church  with  its  official  clergy,  fail  to  satisfj^,  which 
inevitably  finds  relief  in  new  creeds  and  more  spiritual 
religions,  and  to  which  education  only  can  give  intelli- 
gent direction. 

The  attitude  of  the  State  towards  the  Easkol  and  the 
various  independent  sects  has  varied  according  to  the 
necessities  of  the  times  and  the  circumstances  of  the  mo- 
ment. 

The  tsar  Alexis  and  his  son,  Feodor,  persecuted  dis- 
senters as  heretics  and  enemies  of  religion.  Peter  the 
Great  pursued  them  as  perturbators  of  the  public  peace 
and  opponents  of  imperial  reform,  or  he  tolerated  them 
as  industrious,  tax-paying  subjects,  sources  of  income  for 
his  impoverished  exchequer.  Catherine  II.  and  lier  suc- 
ces.sors  have  treated  them  alternately  witii  kindness  or 
with  severity,  endeavoring  at  one  time  to  allure  them 
back  into  the  Churcli.  and  at  another  solicitous  only  to 
bring  them  into  submission  to  civil  authority. 

During  this  latter  period,  that  is,  since  Catherine's 
accession  to  the  throne,  the  policy  of  the  government 


29i       TUE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

towards  tbcni  has  been  fickle  and  changeable.  They 
have  been  in  turn  persecuted  and  tolerated,  threatened 
and  encouraged,  according  to  the  whim  of  the  sovereign 
or  the  prevailing  influences  of  the  moment.  This  shift- 
ing, fluctuating  legislation,  and  the  contradictory  nature 
of  the  measures  adopted  are  attributable  to  the  general 
ignorance  which  existed  regarding  the  different  schismatic 
movements — ignorance  the  more  gross,  from  the  indiffer- 
ence and  contemj)t  felt  for  any  popular  manifestation 
of  opinion,  and  which  led  to  the  careless  and  erroneous 
comprehension  of  all  the  various  bodies,  with  their  hete- 
rogeneous doctrines,  under  one  head,  the  Raskol. 

As  a  consequence  of  this  grave  misapprehension  the 
same  remedies  were  indiscriminately  applied  to  them  all. 
Orderly  Old  Believers,  with  a  regular  hierarchy,  anarchi- 
cal Xo  Priests,  with  none.  Flagellants  and  Champions  of 
I  the  Spirit,  reactionary  conservatives  and  revolutionary 
radicals — all  confounded  together  with  reckless  disregard 
of  reason  or  propriety — were  treated  alike. 

As  public  opinion  became  by  degrees  more  enlight- 
ened, and  the  apparition  of  eccentric  and  immoral  sects 
rendered  it  necessary  to  make  distinctions,  insufficient 
classification  again  led  to  further  confusion  and  error. 

All  Dissenters  were  included  in  two  categories,  "per- 
nicious "  sects  and  sects  "  less  pernicious,"  as  if  the  only 
difference  between  them  consisted  in  the  degree  of  evil. 

The  "  pernicious,"  or  dangerous  sects,  so  called,  com- 
prised all  whose  doctrines  appeared  to  threaten  public  or 
social  order,  to  set  at  naught  the  moral  law,  or  endanger 
the  unity  of  the  Orthodox  Church.  The  peaceful  Mo- 
lokani  and  ignorant  Sabbatarians  figure<l  in  the  official 
lists  with  the  rebellious  Stranniki,  the  fanatical  Khlysti 
and  Skoptsi. 

In  dealing  with  them  the  government  seemed  actuated 


COMMISSION  ORDERED  BY  NICHOLAS. 


295 


at  different  times  by  various  motives,  now  acting  simply 
in  defence  of  political  and  social  interests,  and,  again,  so- 
licitous for  the  welfare  of  the  Church  and  the  advance- 
ment of  religion.  It  had  no  fixed,  pennanent  policy, 
and  adopted  no  clear  or  well-defined  system  of  legisla- 
tion. Authoritative  enactments,  dictated  by  the  pre- 
sumed necessities  of  the  moment,  or  by  the  caprice  of 
the  sovereign,  followed  one  upon  another,  the  last  abro- 
gating or  modifying  the  preceding.  Such  laws  as  did 
exist  were  arbitrarily  applied,  altered  by  special  instruc- 
tions, and  tampered  with  by  venal  officials. 

The  emperor  JSTicholas,  for  the  first  time,  ordered  a 
special  investigation  of  the  subject,  and  was  amazed  at 
the  extent  and  influence  of  the  movement,  which,  with 
his  accustomed  energy  and  decision,  he  attempted  to 
regulate  with  a  view  to  its  entire  suppression.  A  secret 
commission  Avas  charged  with  the  affairs  appertaining  to 
the  Easkol,  and  administered  them  under  ordinances 
framed  by  itself,  but  never  publicly  promulgated.  Dis- 
senters of  every  creed  and  denomination,  subjected  to 
regulations  of  which  they  were  frequently  left  in  igno- 
rance until  enforced,  became  a  defenceless  prey  to  the 
cupidity  of  government  employees  and  to  the  rancorous 
hostility  of  the  lower  clergy.  Such  of  them  as  belonged 
to  the  peasant  class  were  inhibited  from  holding  positions 
of  trust  in  the  rural  districts ;  those  who  were  traders  or 
mercliants  were  excluded  from  mercantile  guilds,  and 
deprived  of  the  privileges  of  their  order.  A  Easkolnik 
could  not  testify  in  courts  of  justice  against  an  Ortho- 
dox ;  he  was  not  allowed  to  change  his  residence  without 
permission,  and  was  forbidden  to  leave  the  empire ;  the 
erection  of  new  churches  and  the  repairing  of  the  old 
ones  were  prohibited. 

To  these  severe  and  legally  authorized  restrictions  was 


296       THE  RUSSIAN  CHURCH  AND  RUSSIAN  DISSENT. 

added  the  more  grievous  persecution  of  almost  irrespon- 
sible government  agents,  the  "  tchinovniks,"  against 
which  the  only  protection  and  means  of  redress  was 
bribery. 

This  melancholy  state  of  things  could  not  fail  to  at- 
tract attention  when  Alexander  II.  commenced  the  era 
of  reform  which  dates  from  his  reign.  Imperial  com- 
missions of  able  and  distinguished  men  were  appointed 
by  him  for  the  serious  and  impartial  examination  of  the 
question  of  Dissent,  and  their  efforts  were  encouraged  by 
the  assurance  of  his  personal  interest  and  co-operation. 
Their  work  is  still  in  progress,  but  provisional  enact- 
ments, applied  with  comparative  justice  by  a  more  honest 
administration,  have  already  greatly  alleviated  the  con- 
dition of  the  Easkolniks. 

A  circular,  issued  in  1858,  firmly  established  the  jirin- 
ciple  of  toleration  by  allowing  to  all  Easkolniks,  born 
such,  the  exercise  of  their  religious  faith ;  it  is  probable 
that  tliis  privilege  will  be  eventually  extended,  and  that 
similar  provision  will  be  made  to  guarantee  their  civil 
rights,  Avhich  now  exist  by  sufferance  only.  The  meas- 
ures contemplated  Avill,  it  is  beheved,  leave  them  free  to 
change  their  residence  at  will,  to  travel  abroad,  to  enter 
mercantile  guilds,  to  create  schools  for  their  children, 
and,  what  is  especially  gratifying  to  Eussian  pride,  to 
accept  and  wear  decorations  or  honorary"  distinctions. 
The  marriage  difficulty  has  been  already  solved  by  the 
edict  of  18T-1. 

The  old  classification  of  the  sects  is  still  preserved  in 
theory,  but  while  such  as  are  reputed  dangerous  will 
probably  be  kept  under  rigid  supervision,  active  persecu- 
tion has  ceased ;  their  meetings  in  private  may  be  tol- 
erated, so  long  as  they  do  nothing  to  violate  public  de- 
cency or  to  offend  against  the  requirements  of  social  life. 


PRESENT  POLICY  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT.  297 

Other  sects,  "  less  pernicious,"  and  especially  the  Old 
Believers,  will,  it  is  believed,  be  permitted  to  meet  to- 
gether at  their  houses,  chapels,  and  cemeteries  for  prayer 
and  religious  service :  the  seals  closing:  their  sacred  edi- 
fices  will  be  removed  and  necessary  repairs  allowed ; 
only  the  public  celebration  of  their  worehip  and  the 
erection  of  new  churches  will  remain  prohibited.  The 
Easkolnik  priests  and  readers,  even  their  bishops,  conse- 
crated by  the  pontiff  at  Belo-Krinitsa,  will  be  exempted 
from  pursuit,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  already  freely 
exercise  their  pastoral  and  clerical  duties.  They  must, 
however,  and  the  rule  applies  to  all  religious  denomina- 
tions in  Kussia,  whether  foreign  or  domestic,  refrain  from 
making  prosel}i;es  among  members  of  the  Orthodox 
communion.  This  is  not  only  a  sin  against  the  Church, 
but  is  a  crime  against  the  law. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Absolution,  182,  200. 

Absorption  of  Unia  by  Orthodoxy,  131 ; 
of  Popovtsism,  231. 

Academy  of  Kiev,  82;  of  Moscow,  120, 
133 ;  of  St.  Petersburg,  178. 

Adaschef,  Alexis,  49,  51. 

Adrian,  Patriarch,  83,  115,  IIC,  118. 

Ahkmet,  42,  43. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  3. 

Akoulina  Ivanovna,  208,  285,  286. 

Albasin,  116. 

Aleppo,  Paul  of,  91,  92. 

Alexis,  Metropolitan,  28-30. 

Alexis  Komanoff,  Tsar,  see  KomanofF. 

Alexis  the  Judaizer,  181. 

Alexis,  Tsarevitch,  123. 

Alexander  I..  222,  223, 259,  261, 269, 273. 

Alexander  II.,  206,  228,  296. 

Alexander  Nevski,  St.,  26, 165 ;  Monas- 
tery of,  167. 

Alexander  of  Lithuania,  44, 

Alexandria,  63,  101. 

Alexandrov,  51,  52,  55. 

Ambrosius,  227,  228. 

America,  206,  286. 

Amoor,  116. 

Amurat  II.,  34. 

Anabaptists,  291. 

Anastasia,  see  Komanoff. 

Anastasius,  Metropolitan,  51,  .52. 

Andrew,  St.,  the  Apostle,  12,  13. 

Anglo-Saxon,  206,  257. 

Anna,  Princes?,  1«;  Ivanovna,  Empress, 
217,  236,  239. 

Anthony  of  the  Petchcrski,  St.,  22,  23, 
29. 

Anthony  of  Sidnvetsk,  74. 
Anthonv  the  linman,  St.,  13. 
Antichrist,  193,  202-204,  230,  236-238, 
242. 

Antioch,  GO,  63,  94,  101. 


Apocalypse,  189, 193,  204,  266. 
Arcadius,  1. 

Archangel,  Church  of,  184,  215. 
Arius,  3. 

Armenian  Churches,  132. 
Armenians,  212. 
Ascension.  Convent  of,  78. 
Asia,  31,  64,  140. 
Asia  Minor,  13,  218. 

Assumption,  Cathedral  of,  36,  100,  184, 
272. 

Assur  (Assonr),  194. 

Astracan,  50.  79. 

Atheism,  137. 

Athos,  Mt.,  46,  57,  186. 

Attorney-Generalof  the  Holy  Synod,  157. 

Augustus  of  Poland,  129. 

Austria,  117,  139,  218,  227.  228. 

Azov,  121. 

K 

Babylon.  192,  194. 
Baikal,  Lake,  205. 
Bajazet,  33. 

Baptism,  85,  86,  96,  127,  14.5,  147,  182, 
200 ;  of  Skoptsi,  266 ;  of  Molokaui, 
276. 

Barlaam  of  the  Petcherski,  23. 

Barlaam,  Metropolitan,  46. 

Basil  L,  14,  15. 

Basil  IL,  18, 

Basil,  Heretic,  277,  note. 

Basil,  St.,  162. 

Batorj-,  Stephen,  55,  66. 

Beast  of  the  Apocalyf.so,  19.3,  194,  244. 

BoglopopDvt.si,  tlie,  219. 

Begouni,  the,  see  Straiiniki. 

Belcvski,  289. 

Believers,  Old,  189,  193,  195,  198,  206, 
211,  21.3,  215,  217.  225-232,  239,  248, 
254,  26.i,  272,  288,  294,  297 ;  their 
aspirations,  233. 

Btllerophou,  legend  on  statue  of,  18. 


300 


INDEX. 


Belo-Krinitsn,  227,  229,  230,  297. 
Bclliluhtm,  Council  of,  12(5;  village, 
253. 

Bezpopovtsi,  the,  199,  200,  222,  2.'5G, 
237,  23i).  -241,  247,  24«,  274,  275,  294; 
extravasjaiices,  201-203 ;  distribution, 
215,  21t),  219.  221 ;  organization,  234; 
ceremonies,  235. 

Bczpopovtsism,  219,  243. 

Bczslovestnie,  the,  289. 

Bible,  the,  15,  19,  84,  140, 182, 189, 194, 
214,  21G,  234,  235,  240,  244,  254,  2.')5, 
2G2,  268,  275-278,  282,  283,  287,  289. 

Bishops,  19,  25,  33, 37,  40,  G2,  03,  G7,  74, 
80-82,  8G,  9G,  99,  100,  lOG,  157-159, 
175,  178,  198,  199,  224,  227,  297. 

Blachernc,  Church  of,  14. 

Black  Clergy,  see  Clergy. 

Black  Sea,  284. 

Boehm,  Jacob,  253,  270. 

Bogoloubsky,  Andrew,  181. 

Bogomiles,  the,  277,  and  note. 

Boretsky,  .lob  of  Kiev,  81,  82,  8G. 

Bosnia,  227. 

Bosphorus,  The,  18,  GI,  139,  190. 
Brahmins,  the,  254. 
Bread  in  tlie  Eucharist,  5,  C,  35,  14G. 
Brethren  of  the  .Sword,  the,  25. 
Brodiagi,  the,  see  Stranniki. 
Budget,  the  clerical,  177. 
Bukovina.  218,  227. 
Bulgaria,  Bulgarians,  4,  17,  277, 
Burners,  the,  see  Sojigateli. 
Burnet,  (iilbert,  117. 
Busurmani,  tlic,  G9. 
Byzantine  theologians,  8,  216. 
Byzantium,  Empire  of,  33,  37,  5G,  1G3, 
"l87. 

C. 

Calvinists,  115,  126,  277. 

Capitation  tax,  192. 

Casimir,  of  I'oland,  37. 

Catherine  II.,  120,  130,  134,  13.5,  191, 

217,  218,  220,  223,  231,  232,  2G8,  272, 

293. 

Catholic  clergy,  priests,  10,  34,  73, 117, 
130,1.50;  communities,  215. 

Catholics,  in  Bussia,  57,  72,  115:  in  Po- 
land, 70,  80,  81,  128-130,  217;  and 
Peter  the  (ireat,  117. 

Catholicism,  139,  152,  277. 

Caucasus,  the,  217,  271,  281,  292. 

Celibacv,  149,  150,  ICO;  among  Bczpo- 
povtsi,  201,  242. 


Census,  the,  192. 

Centralization  of  Church  government, 
158, 159. 

Ceremonies  of  the  Church,  8G,  145-151, 
185,  288,  290,  291  ;  of  the  Bezpopov- 
tsi,  200, 235 ;  of  tlic  Klilysti,  258, 259  ; 
of  the  Shakouni,  2G1-2G3;  of  the 
Skoptsi,  2G7,  272,  273;  of  the  Ba- 
tionahstic  sects,  274,  275. 

Cerularius,  Michael,  5. 

Cham|)ions  of  tlie  Spirit,  the,  see 
Doukliobortsi. 

Cliarlemagne,  3. 

(Jhersonesus,  the,  15. 

Child-killers,  the,  see  Dieto-oubiisti. 

Cliildrcn  of  priests,  170,171,17(1;  ofKas- 
kolniks,  246;  of  Skoptsi,  2GG, 

Cliiua,  IIG. 

Chrism,  The  Holy,  4,  147. 

Christ,  Jesus,  2,  36,  43,  55,  84,  85,  95, 

133,  141,  190,  198,  202,  204,  205,  230, 

254.  255,  260,  262,  268,  269,  275-279, 

281,  283,  285,  288,  289. 
Christianity  in  liussia,  12,  19,  24,  139, 

152. 

Chrysostom,  St.,  59. 

Cliurch  books,  correction  of,  45-47,  50, 
78,  94,  18G,  187  ;  errors  in,  185. 

Church  of  Pome,  4,  34,  127,  131,  140, 
1.51,  188,  190,  289;  Eastern,  58,  59; 
of  Little  Russia,  68;  government  of 
the,  158,  159;  see  Unia,  Uniates. 

Church,  Orthodo.x  (Jreek,  .3,  4,  9,  15-21, 
24,  33,  Gl,  63,  94,  95,  140,  235,  260; 
union  with  Home,  34-36;  degrada- 
tion, 58-60. 

Church,  Orthodox  Polish;  iniited  witli 
Kussiaii,  32,  111,  112;  se|iarated  from, 
33;  accepts  Unia,  37 ;  persecuted,  44- 
46,  G6,  80,  81,  86,  128,  129;  rejects 
Unia,  44;  depends  on  Constantinople, 
44,  112;  reforms,  67;  diviik^d,  Unia 
and  Orthodoxy,  68;  dissensions,  81 ; 
trancpiil,  82;  tolerated,  130. 

Church,  Orthodox  Kussian,  7,  2.35,2.37- 
239,  260,  267,  268.  274,  275,  277,  283, 
288,  289,  291,  293-295,  297;  nation- 
al character  of,  19,  22,  24,  2.5-28,  42, 
5.5,  139,  143;  missions  of,  see  Mis- 
sions; under  Tatars,  26,  27,  40,  41  ; 
reforms  in,  see  Reforms,  Church  books; 
increase  of,  29,  39,  6.5,  78;  dissensions 
in,  28,  30,  31,  107,  112,  180;  connec- 
tion of,  ^vith  Polish,  32,  33;  rejects 
union  with  Roman,  36,  56, 123;  with 


INDEX. 


301 


English,  124,  12G:  corruption  of,  31, 
41,  52,  5-1;  iiuiependent  of  Constanti- 
nople, 37,  38,  58  ;  heresies  in,  see  Her- 
esies, Kaskol,  Dissent;  struggle  of, 
ivith  State,  44,  87,  98,  105;  martyrs 
of,  16,  53,  54,  74,  75;  patriarchate  of, 
GO-64;  loyalty  of,  70,  71-76;  rebap- 
tism  in,  79,  127;  doctrines  of,  83-86, 
116  ;  differences  of,  from  Greek 
Church,  94-96;  from  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  144-152;  Nikon's  career  in, 
see  Nikon  :  I'olotsky's  scheme  for,  108; 
persecutes  Dissent,  122, 127,  132,  188 ; 
change  of  government  in,  124,  125; 
synod  of,  see  Synod ;  sacraments  of, 
85,  86,  145-151 ;  marriage  with  non- 
Orthodox,  127 ;  sulijection  of,  to 
State,  128,  135,  136,  193:  toleration 
in,  130;  absorbs  Unia,  131,  132;  its 
property  sequestered,  118-120,  134; 
influence  of,  on  civilization,  140,  im- 
mutability of,  140,  152;  characteris- 
tics of,  142;  isolation  of,  143;  his- 
toric development  of,  153-155;  Edi- 
novertsism,  231-233;  absorption  of 
Popovtsism,  231;  clergy  of,  see  Cler- 
gy ;  monasteries  of,  see  Monasticism, 
Monasteries,  Nunneries ;  Dissent  in, 
see  Haskol,  Dissent. 
Churches,  Eastern  and  Western,  2,  C- 
11. 

Circularists,  230. 

Claiidio  Kangoiii,  70. 

Clement,  ^letropolitan,  25. 

Clement  VII.,  Vope,  46,  70. 

Clement  VIII.,  Pope,  67. 

Clergv.  the,  of  the  Uussian  Church,  31. 
39,' 113,  143,  165,  173-178,  182,  185, 
210,  234,  237,  293;  ignorance  of,  31, 
41,  88,  104,  106,  107,  120,  133,  175, 
177,  182 ;  effect  of  Tatar  rule  upon, 
40,42;  entrance  to,  119;  morals  of, 
133,144;  iioverty  of,  149,150;  regular 
or  monastic,  secular,  married,  or  par- 
ish, 159;  black  and  white,  160,  161; 
restrictions,  166;  a  caste.  170,  171; 
numbers  of,  172 ;  English,  124,  126; 
of  the  Popovl.si,  199,  210,  219;  of 
the  Edinovcrtsi,  2.33,  247,  2.59. 

Clerical  life  in  Kussia,  160;  caste,  170. 

Cocas,  Joasaph  of  Constantinople,  69. 

Code,  the  ]{ussian,  148,  284,  297. 

Colleges,  of  Peter  the  Great,  124;  the 
Spiritual,  12.5. 

Commission,  the  Economical,  134. 


Communion,  127, 145, see  Eucharist;  the 

lirst,  147,  149;  of  the  Khlysti,  255; 

Shakouni,  262,  203 ;   Skoptsi,  271 ; 

Molokani,  276. 
Comparison  of  East  and  West,  G;  of 

America  and  Russia,  2U6.  ■J07. 
Confession  of  Peter  Mogihi,  82,  83,  94, 

116,126;  auricular,  146-140, 182,  200, 

276. 

Contirmation,  86, 147. 
Constantino  the  (ireaf,  16, 
Constantine  VII.,  Emperor.  .5,  1.5. 
Constantine  II.,  Metropolitan  of  Kiev, 
181. 

Constantinople,  1,  3-5,  7,  14.  16-18,  20, 
22,  23,  27.  30,  36-38,  43-46,  56,  58, 
59,  63,  67,  80,  82.  83,  94.  96, 111-113, 
142,  145,  163,  154,  180,  186,  227,  277, 
278. 

Conversion  of  the  Russian  people,  14, 19, 
185. 

Cornelius  of  Novgorod,  110. 

Cossacks,  the,  68,  71,  73,  80,  81,  86,  97, 
116,  214,  215,  226. 

Councils:  si.\th,  2;  of  .-M-x-la-Chapelle, 
3;  seventh,  3;  of  Constantinople,  3, 
4 ;  of  Florence,  34-36,  42,  44,  56 ;  of 
the  Hundred  Chapters,  49,  106,  186; 
general,  85,  86 ;  for  Nikon's  trial,  101 ; 
of  Bethlehem,  126. 

Counters,  the,  see  Tchislenniki. 

Court,  the  patriarchal,  78,  87, 106, 1 18 ; 
of  the  Great  Palace,  79;  the  mon- 
astery court,  87,  98, 106. 

Cracow,  130. 

Crescent,  the,  96. 

Crimea,  the,  135,  228. 

Cross,  the  sign  of  the,  95,  188,  235,  274; 
Russian  form  of  the,  95,  96,  188. 

Cypharas,  Constantine,  15. 

Cyprian,  Metropolitan,  30-32. 

Cyprian,  of  Polotsk,  128. 

Cyprus,  72. 

Cyril  Lncar,  59,  82,  83. 

Cyril,  Metropolitan,  26,  27. 

Cvril,  Metropolitan  of  the  Popcvtsi,  228, 

"229. 
Cyril,  St.,  15, 19. 

D. 

Dacia,  1.5. 

Dancers,  the.  see  Pliasouni. 
Dancing,  2.j7-259,  261. 
Daniel,  Metropolitan,  46,  47,  186. 
Daniel,  Prophet,  202. 


INDEX. 


302 

Danube,  the,  15. 
Deacons,  44,  SO,  172,  23C. 
Debauchery  of  the  13ezpopovtsi,  201;  of 

IMystic  Sects,  2C1. 
Decentralization  of  Ortliodox  Cliurch, 

142. 

DenisofT,  219,  236. 

Department  of  the  Monasteries,  118, 
119. 

Dependency  of  Church  on  State,  152 ; 
opinions  of  the  I'opovtsi,  233. 

Development,  historical,  of  the  Kussian 
Church,  153. 

Diaconate,  the,  173. 

Dieto-oubiisti,  the,  204. 

Differences,  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches,  2,  G-ll;  be- 
tween the  Kussian  and  other  Greek 
Churches,  94,  188;  in  rites  and  cere- 
monies, 144-150;  between  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches,  140-142,  150. 

Dimitri,  Archimandrite,  and  St.,  120. 

Dimitri  II.,  29.  . 

Dimitri  III.,  Donskoi,  29-31. 

Dimitri,  Pretenders,  73-75. 

Dimitri,  the  False,  70-72,  75. 

Dimitri,  Tsarevitch,  65,  70. 

Dionysius,  Archimandrite,  74,  75,  79. 

Dionysius,  Metropolitan,  57.  58. 

Dionysius  of  Constantinople,  59. 

Dionvsius,  the  Judaizer,  183,  184. 

Dir,  14. 

Dissent  and  Dissenters,  106,  107,  111, 
113-115,  1G5,  179,  180,  248,  281,  293- 
295;  persecution  of,  121, 122, 127,  132; 
toleration  of,  127,  133, 134.  See  Ras- 
kol;  KaskolniUs;  Old  Believers;  Old 
Kitualists;  Strigolniks;  Judaizers; 
Popovtsi;  Bezpopovtsi,  etc. 

Division,  of  the  Kaskol,  190,  198,  199; 
among  the  Popovtsi,  229,  230. 

Divorce,  150,  lo8. 

Dnieper,  the,  13, 14,  19,  28, 153,  1G3, 1G4. 
Dobrutscha,  the,  226. 
Doctrines  of  the  Kussian  Church,  83-86. 
Dodecalogue  of  the  Khlysti,  256. 
Don,  Battle  of  the,  30,  31,  71,  122. 
Don,  Cossacks  of  the,  68,  71,  215. 
Donskoi,  the,  30, 31 ;  Monastery  of,  163, 
164. 

Dosithens,  Patriarch,  83,  126. 
Double  Procession  of  the  Holj'  Ghost, 
see  Ghost. 

Doukhobortsi,  the,  273,  274,  277,  278, 
280,  281,  294. 


I  Donshilstchiki,  the,  204, 

I  Drunkenness  of  priests,  91,  133,  175. 

Dumb,  the,  see  Bezslovestnie. 

Dwellers  by  the  Sea  Shore,  see  Poraortsi. 

E. 

East  and  West,  comparison  of,  6-11. 
Easter,  2, 127, 288 ;  Easter  of  the  Skoptsi, 
263,  271. 

Eastern  Church,  see  Orthodox  Greek 
Church. 

Eastern  Patriarchs,  2,  8,  14,  36,  37,  43, 
CI,  63,  64,  80,  86,  94,  100,  101.  103, 
110,  123,  126,  181,  188,  199,  216,  227; 
see  Patriarch ;  Patriarchate. 

Ecclesiastical  authority,  141. 

Economical  Commission,  the,  134. 

Edinovertsi,  the,  231,  245. 

ICdinovertsism,  233. 

Education  of  White  Clergy,  172,  173. 

EHm,  243. 

Ekaterinoslav,  291. 

Elders,  of  the  Bezpopovtsi,  200,  234, 235, 
239  ;  of  the  Khlysti,  258,  259  ;  of  the 
Molokani,  275,  281 ;  of  the  Shakouni, 
261 ;  of  the  Strigolniki,  182. 

Elia,  St.,  15,  138. 

Elinski,  269. 

Elizabeth,  Empress,  129,  132,  28.5. 
End  of  the  World,  the,  39,  202,  285. 
England,  117,  206,  215,  217,  286. 
English  Clergy,  the,  124,  126 ;  Church, 
126. 

Epiphany,  the,  181. 

Episcopate,  the,  160,  178. 

Errors,  in  ritual  and  Church  books,  see 

Church  Books. 
Eucharist,  the,  5,  6,  35, 85,  86,  145-149, 

182,  188,  200,  276. 
Eugenius  IV.,  Pope,  34-36. 
Eunuchs,  the,  see  Stranniki. 

F. 

Faith,  Peter  Mogila's  Confession  of,  see 

Confession. 
Fasting,  4. 

Fellers,  the,  see  Donshilstchiki. 
Feodocei  of  the  Pctrherski,  23;  of  the 

Bezpopovtsi,  221,  236,  239. 
Feodocians,  the,  221,  222,  237,  239,  241- 

243,  265. 

Feodor  I.,  57,  60-62,  65,  72,  73,  293. 
Feodor  III.,  108-111. 
Feodor,  Martyr  at  Kiev,  16. 
Ferrara,  35. 


INDEX. 


303 


Filioque,  3,  4, 

Flagellants,  the,  see  Khlysti. 

Florence,  35,  42,  44,  5(5. 

I'oreigners,  Kussian  jealousy  and  hatred 

of,  22,  24,  25,  69,  113,  115,  116,  188, 

193. 

Formalism,  of  Russian  Church,  145 ;  of 
people  and  clergy,  185,  188,  274 ;  of 
the  Raskol,  189. 

France,  3,  44,  IGO,  215. 

Freedom  of  worship,  81 ;  of  conscience, 
129,  130,  134,  210;  of  interpretation, 
141,  151,  180,  189,  190,  197,  206.  214, 
218,  219,  234. 

Free  Love,  201,  206,  240. 

Free-masonry,  260,  272. 

Fugitives,  the,  see  Stranniki. 

G. 

Gallicia,  227. 
Gapers,  the,  200. 
Gaul,  163. 

Gelaktion  of  Souzdal,  74. 

Genghis  Khan,  31. 

Gennadius  of  Novgorod,  74,  184. 

George,  St.,  138. 

Georgia,  157, 

Gerraanus,  52. 

Germany  and  the  Germans,  17,  24,  115, 

117,  163,  290,  291. 
Gerontius,  Metropolitan,  42,  184, 
Ghost,  the  Holv,  2-4,  G,  36,  83-86,  256, 

260,  277. 

Godounoy,  Boris,  58,  Gl,  62, 65, 66, 68-73, 

77,  154. 
Gorodine,  Mt.,  254. 
Gospel,  the,  see  13iblc. 
Greece,  7, 156. 

Greek  Church,  the,  tee  Church ;  doctors, 

17  ,  empire,  4  ;  people,  34. 
Gregorj',  Metropolitan  of  Kiev,  37,  44. 
Gregory  Nanzianzen,  8. 
Gregory  of  Constantinople,  69. 
Gregory  VII.,  Pope,  24. 
Gregory  XIII,,  Pope,  55,  56. 
Gumbinncn,  218. 

II. 

ITalleluia,  95,  188. 

Head  of  the  Church,  105,  141,  142,  156, 

157. 
Hegel,  278. 

Helena,  Daughter-in-law  of  Ivan  III., 
184. 

Helena,  Daughter  of  Ivan  III.,  41,  45. 


Helena,  St.,  16. 

Helena,  Wife  of  Vassili  IV.,  47. 

Henry  of  Germany,  117. 

Heresies:  of  Arius,  2;  of  the  Roman 
Church,  4;  in  the  Russian  Church, 
43,  180-184,  266,  273,  277,  282;  Gnos- 
tic, 251,  252 ;  of  KuUraan,  254. 

Hermitages,  162, 220, 235. 

Hermogenes,  Patriarch,  73-75. 

Hierarchy,  of  the  Church,  63,  101 ;  of 
Popovtsisra,  227 ;  of  Polish  Church, 
81 ;  of  Uniate  Church,  232. 

Hilarion,  Metropolitan,  22, 23. 

Holland,  117. 

Holy,  see  Chrism  ;  Ghost ;  Spirit ;  Synod ; 

Thursday. 
Honorius,  1. 

Horde,  the,  27;  Golden,  50;  bej'ond  the 

Falls,  86. 
Hospitallers,  the,  see  Stranniki, 
Hundred  Chapters,  Council  of  the,  see 

Councils. 

I. 

Iberia,  our  Lady  of,  169. 
Icons,  see  Pictures. 

Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
3-5. 

Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  JIoscow,  72,  75- 
77, 

Igur  of  Kiev,  15,  IG. 

lissous,  95, 230, 

Illyria,  33. 

Ilmen,  Lake,  13. 

Ilyne,  Nicholas,  282. 

Image  Worship,  2, 144, 

Immutability  of  the  Church,  9, 140, 141, 

151,152, 159. 
Imperator,  title  of,  194. 
Independence  of  Church  of  Russia,  37, 

153,159;  of  Church  from  State,  152, 

233. 
India,  212,  2.54. 

Infants  and  Infanticide,  147,  241, 
Innocent  IV,,  Pope,  2G, 
Inspiration,  256,  260,  268, 
Irene,  Tsarina,  58,  G6, 
Irkutsk,  116,  268. 
Isiaslav,  23,24,117. 

Isidore,  Metropolitan,  33-37, 56 ;  of  Nov- 
gorod, 74. 

Isolation  of  Russian  Church,  140,  143 ; 

of  the  peasantry,  216. 
fssous,  95,  230. 
Italy,  34,215. 
Ivan  I,,"Kalita,"  27-29, 


304 


INDEX. 


Ivan  III.,  41-45.79,  87, 183. 

Ivan  IV.,  tlie  "  Terrible,"  47-57,70, 113, 

180.  277. 
Ivan,  Martyr  at  Kiev,  16. 
Ivan,  Tsarevitch,  55. 
Ivan  v..  111. 
Ivanovitch,  Simon,  82. 
Iverski  Convent,  tlio,  89,  99,  1C4. 

J. 

Japhet,  12. 
J  assy,  83. 

Jehosaphat  of  Polotsk,  81. 
Jeremiah  I.  of  Constantinople,  59. 
Jeremiah  II.  of  Constantinople,  o9-G3, 
G7. 

Jerusalem,  13,  24,  43,  63,  77, 81, 83, 126, 
190. 

Jesuits,  the,  67, 72, 82, 115, 123, 127, 129, 

130,  260. 
Jesus,  95,  188. 

Jews,  the,  17,43,  121. 132,  174,  183,  193, 

205,212,270,281,282. 
Joachim  of  Antioch,  GO,  61. 
Joachim  of  Constantinople,  59. 
Joacliim  of  Moscow,  107-111,  115. 
Joasaph  Cocas  of  Constantinople,  59. 
Joasaph  II.  of  Constantinople.  59. 
Joasaph  II.  of  Moscow,  lOG,  107. 
Job  of  Novgoroil,  121. 
Job,  Patriarch  of  Moscow.  58,  C2,  71,  73. 
John  Palaeologus,  33,  34,  3G. 
John  the  Apostle,  St.,  189,  193, 287. 
Jonah  II.  of  Kiev,  66. 
Jonah,  Metropolitan  of  the  Steeps,  7G, 

100. 

Jonah,  ^lonk  (Ivan  IV.).  b~. 
Jonah  of  Riazan,  28, 33,  37. 
Jonah  of  Ilostov,  100. 
Joseph,  Hegumen,  184. 
Joseph  of  Kolomna,  74. 
Ju(ia;a,  252. 

Judaizcrs,  the,  43, 183,  184, 282. 
Jumpers,  the,  see  Shakouui. 

K. 

Kalouga,  290. 
Kapoustine.  279,  281 
Karp,  181,  182. 
Kasan,50,63.79,  116. 
Kherson,  18,  291. 

Khlysti,  the,  267,  2G8,  273,  283,  289, 
294  ;  origin  of,  253,  254  ;  deities,  255 ; 
moral  law,  256 ;  practices,  257-261 ; 
prophesying,  259,  285. 


Khoutinsk,  Convent  of,  58. 

Klirvstovschina,  253. 

Kiev,  13-15,  23,  24,  30,  41,  45,  56,  62, 
120,  130,  153,  157,  1G2,  163,  1G5,  167, 
180,  181,  190,  277,  291 ;  martyrs  of, 
IG;  conversion  of,  19,  20;  primacy 
removed  from,  27 ;  conquered,  28 ;  its 
see  independent,  33  ;  adopts  Unia,  37; 
becomes  Orthodo.x,  GO ;  persecuted, 
joins  I\ome,  67,  68;  revived,  80; 
bloody  struggles,  81 ;  Peter  Mogila, 
!RIetropolitan  of,  82,83,86;  ceded  to 
Russia,  112. 

Kojeozersk,  Monastery  of,  88. 

Kolisnikov,  Svlvan,  279. 

Kolomna,  50,74,  96, 198. 

Kominski,  George,  129. 

Kopeck,  255,  note. 

Kostroma,  243,  254, 25.5. 

Koulchinsky,  Innocentius,  116. 

Kouritsin,  Keodor,  184. 

Koutchouk-Kairnadji,  treaty  of,  135. 

Koveline,  219,  222. 

Kremlin,  the,  67,  66,  72, 101, 255. 

Kroutitsk,  63. 

KuUmaun,  253, 254, 276. 

L. 

Lakes,  the  Great,  122,  215,  217,  221, 

23G. 
Lapland,  45. 
Larissa.  59. 

Latin  Church,  the,  3,  25, 96. 

Latin  Doctors,  17. 

Latin  Language,  the  143, 190. 

Lavra,  162,  165, 167. 

Lay  Brethren,  165. 

Lay  element  in  Raskol,  215,  220. 

Lav  Sisters,  165, 169. 

Lazarus,  189,  190. 

Legends  of  tlie  Russian  Church,  12, 
289. 

Lent.  4,  55, 147, 274. 

Leo  IX.,  Pope,  5. 

Leo  X.,  Pope,  46. 

Leon,  Bishop,  180. 

Leontius,  St.,  Metropolitan,  20. 

Leroy-Bcaulieu,  Anatole,  iii,  209  note, 

Lesbos,  60. 

Lindsay.  Itev.  T.  M.,  83  note. 
Lioudi  Bojii,  the,  see  Khlysti. 
Lissovsky,  Hcraclius,  131. 
Lithuania,  and  Lithuanians,  25,  26,  28, 

32,  37,  41-46,  67,  77,  79,  128,  163, 

183, 


INDEX. 


305 


Little  Russia,  Church  of,  68, 97, 107,  111 ; 

people  of,  191,291. 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  120. 
Livonia,  25,  55, 122. 
Lord's  Supper,  the,  see  Eucharist. 
Lot,  2G2. 

Louis  XL  of  France,  44. 

Louis  XIV.  of  France,  128. 

Lovaltv,  of  Russians,  iv.,  51 ;  of  Russian 
Church,  151 ;  of  Old  Believers,  228, 
229 ;  of  Rezpopovtsi,  238,  239. 

Lubetsch,  22. 

Lupkin,  Pnicopius,  27G. 

Luther,  and  Lutherans,  72,  115, 188,  277, 
290. 

Lyeslii,  the,  138. 

M. 

Macarius,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  29,  91, 

94  ;  Metropolitan,  47,  51. 
Mahometans,  17, 43, 134. 
Mamai,31. 

Manifesto  of  Peter  the  Great,  121. 

Marcellns,  llf). 

]Maiina,  72,  74. 

Iklark  of  ICphesns,  35. 

Mark  of  Jerusalem,  47. 

Mark  Xylocarabccus,  59. 

Marriage,  150,  158 ;  of  priests,  4, 8G,  149, 
150,  100,  161,  170,  171,  170;  between 
Orthodox  and  others,  127 ;  amon<j  Rez- 
popovtsi, 201,  240-242;  amonp  Ras- 
kolniks,  247,  248,296  ;  amoiis;  Klilysti, 
262, 265  ;  among  Skoptsi,  266. 

Martha  and  Mary,  189. 

Martyrdom,  of  Fcodor  and  Ivan  at  Kiev, 
16;  of  Phili(),  53,  54  ;  of  Ilcrmogencs, 
74,  75. 

Mary,  the  Virgin,  84,  200,  2G3,  285. 
Materialism  in  Russia, 260. 
Matrimony,  86. 

Maximns,  Jlclropolitan,  27.  28 ;  the 

Greek,  46, 47, 186. 
Meletius  Striga,  83. 
Mennonites,  the,  291. 
Messiah,  the,  183,  204,  253,  206,  270, 

280. 

Metempsychosis,  279. 
Methodius,  15,  19. 

Methrophanes  of  Constantinople,  59. 

Metrophanes  of  Voronege,  121. 

Metropolitan,  the,  in  Russia,  20,  22,  23, 
25-30,  32-34,  37,  42-46,  53,  54,  56,  58, 
62,  63,  74,  89,  108,  110,  153,  l.M,  157, 
167,  184, 186 ;  iu  I'oland,  33, 37, 44,  45, 
20 


CG,  07,  81,  82,  86,  112,  128,  131;  of 

Popovtsi,  226-230,  297;  of  Greek 

Churches,  101. 
Michael  III.,  Emperor, 3, 15. 
jMichael,  palace  of,  259. 
Michael  Romanoff,  sfe  Romanoff. 
Michael,  Saint  and  Metropolitan,  20. 
Milk  Drinkers,  the, see  Molokani. 
Jlilleniuni,  the,  204, 2CG,  280. 
Millerites,  the,  20G. 
Minime.  Kozma,  76. 
Jlinor  Clergy,  the,  172, 178. 
Missions,  of  the  Greek  Church,  4, 15, 19; 

of  the  Russian  Church,  25,32,45, 116. 

lMitai,30,  "  

Mitan,  118. 

Mogila,  Peter,  82,  83, 94, 116, 126. 
Mogilev,  128, 217. 
Jloidavia,  82. 

Molokani,  The,  273-281, 288,  291,  294. 
Molotchnaya,  the,  274,  279,  281. 
Moltclialniki,  the,  289. 
Monasteries,  5,  23,  29,  39,  40,  44,  54,  66, 
68,  69,  82,  94,  108,  109,  134,  150,  154, 
102,  260  ;  in  the  East,  9  ;  in  the  West, 
10;  Dominican,  68 ;  Department  of, 
118-120;  number,  wealth,  regulations, 
119,  120;  in  Poland,  129;  extent,  his- 
tory, veneration  for,  163-165;  re- 
sources, 166,  168,  169;  classilication 
and  inmates,  167,  1G8.  .SVe  Alexander 
Nevski ;  St.  Anthony  the  Roman; 
Ascension  ;  Donskoi ;  Ivcrski ;  Kojeo- 
zersk;  Novospasski;  Otroch;  Pet- 
chcrski;  Potchaief;  Simonov;  Solo- 
vctsk ;  Staritza;  Studium;  Thera- 
pontoff;  Troitsa;  Volokanisk;  Vos- 
kresensk. 

Monastery  Tribunal,  the,  87.  98, 106. 

Monastic'Lifc,  9,  II,  119,  120,  161-163, 
165,  16G,  169;  clergy,  .toe  Clergy. 

Monasticism,  in  the  East,  9 ;  in  the  West, 
10;  in  Russia.  161,165, 169. 

Monks,  10, 91, 133, 150. 160, 1(53, 165-167, 
1G9, 170, 187,  260,  270;  of  the  Bczpo- 
povtsi,  235. 

Slontani,  the,  251. 

Mondity  among  Mystics,  257. 

Moravians,  the,  280. 

Mormons,  the,  206. 

JIoscow,  27,  29,  31,  32,  48,  49,  55,  56,  65. 
67,  71,  82,  83,  100,  119-122,  125,  128, 
133,  157,  163-165,  1G7,  1(59,  232,  2.54, 
260,  267,  276;  becomes  capital.  28; 
its  see  separates  from  Kiev,  33 ;  Uoia 


30G 


INDEX. 


repudiated,  30  ;  metropolitan  assumes 
title  of,  37  ;  glory  of,  43,  45,  40 ;  Ivan 
IV.  loaves  it,  51;  patriarchate  of,  Gl- 
C4;  captured,  recovered,  Konianoff 
dynasty  established,  74-77;  Nikon, 
88,  80;  ri>Ush  and  Kussian  Churches 
united,  112;  the  Judaizers,  43,  183, 
184;  I'raobrajenski  and  liogojsUi,  'i.'O- 
223,  237. 

Moujik,  149,  and  note. 

Music  in  the  Russian  Church,  144. 

Mussulmans,  GO,  135,  217. 

Mutilation,  sec  Skoptsi. 

Mvstical  Sects,  252,  259,  200,  203,  2G9, 
273,  287,  289. 

N. 

Napoleon,  104,  205,  209,  270, 280. 
Natalia,  114. 
Nativity,  the,  181. 
Nazareth,  255. 

Nestor,  Clironicler,  13, 10, 23, 164. 

Nestor  of  Rostov,  180, 181. 

Neva,  the,  20. 

Nevski,  the,  20,105. 

New  England,  206. 

Nicea,  Council  of,  3. 

Nicholas,  a  Eanatic,  54. 

Nicholas,  Emperor,  131,  135,  224,  228, 

245, 255,  259, 272,  281, 292,  295. 
Nicholas  I.,  Pope,  3, 4. 
Nihilists,  the,  239. 
Nijni  Novgorod,  70,  87,  122. 
Nikita,  a  Deacon,  182. 
Nikita,  a  Dissenter,  114. 
Nikita,  St.,  13. 

Nikon,  87,  107,  108,  113,  115,  155,  190- 
194,  198,  199,  231;  is  called  to  Mos- 
cow, 88  ;  commences  reforms,  89,  90 ; 
patriarch,  91;  preaches,  91,  92;  re- 
forms pursued,  93,  94;  differences  be- 
tween Churches,  94-96;  opposition  to 
him,  97,  98;  resigns  oflfice,  98,99;  at- 
tempts reconciliation,  100;  his  trial, 
101-103;  his  purpose,  104-100;  his 
death,  109,  110:  his  reforms  and  the 
opposition  to  them,  187,  188. 

Nineveh,  194. 

Noah,  12. 

Nomocanon.  the,  20. 

Novgorod,  12,  13,  28,  47,  49,  54,  63,  74. 
80,  89,  90,  99,  110,  121,  165,  182-185, 
282. 

Novices,  105, 109. 

NoTodycvitchi  Couveut,  the,  78,  2C0. 


Novospasski  Monastery,  the,  88, 104. 

Novozslieny,  the,  242. 

Numierics,  44, 109, 200. 

Nuns,  150, 105,  167,  169,  260;  of  Bezpo- 

povtsi,  23,5. 
Nyemolyaki,  the,  289. 
Nyemlsi,  the,  69. 
Nyphon  of  Constantinople,  59. 

O. 

Obstchii,the,  280. 

Odessa,  290,  291. 

Oka,  the,  42,  253. 

Okronjniki,  the,  230. 

Olga,  16-18. 

Olonctz,  122, 243. 

Onega,  Lake,  236. 

Onicephorus,  Metropolitan,  67. 

Opposition  to  progress,  192,  194,  196, 

203.   See  Reforms. 
Opritchnina,  and  Opritchniki,  52,  53. 
Oskohl,  14. 
Osliab.  30. 

Ordination,  150, 182,  198-200, 219,  224. 
Organization,  aptitude  for,  iv.,  212,  218, 

219,  221-223;  of  Popovtsi,  227-229; 

of  Bczpopovtsi,  234. 
Origen,  264. 
Orscha,  46. 

Otroch  Monastery,  the,  54. 
Ouvarov,  Count,  245. 

P. 

Pacome  of  Constantinople,  59. 
Pacome  of  Lesbos,  00. 
Paganism,  138,  139. 
Paisius,  Patriarch,  94. 
Paisius  Ligariites,  100. 
Palestine,  94,  90,  104,  187. 
Palitsin,  -Vbram,  74. 
Panov,  288. 

Papal  Nuncio,  the,  70,  117,  129. 

Papal  .supremacy,  1,  2,  6,  11,  24,  26,  34, 
30,  42.  46,  50,"  60,  71,  123,  141,  142. 

Paris,  123. 

Parsees,  the,  212. 

Parthenius,  Patriarch.  83. 

Pa.ssports,  192,  244,  271. 

Parish,  parislics,  and  parishioners,  171, 
172,  174,  177. 

Patriarch,  the,  12,  24,  28,  30,  37,  71-73,  • 
77-80,  92,  93,  100,  105,  107,  109,  111, 
112,  114-118,  124,  12.5,  13,5,  142,  1,53, 
154,  150,  167,  181,  227,  233;  see  Pa- 
triarchate ;  Eastern  Patriarchs, 


INDEX. 


307 


Patriarchal  Court,  the,  78,  lOG,  118. 
Patriarchate,  the  Eastern,  58-60, 63, 153. 
Patriarchate,  the  Kussiaii,  G1-G4,  76, 

77,  79,  91,  99,  100, 106,  108,  116,  119, 

124,  153,  155,  156,  193. 
Paul  of  Aleppo,  91,  92. 
Paul  of  Kolomna,  9G,  198. 
Paul,  the  Apostle,  182,  276. 
Paul,  Tsar,  156,  268,  269,  272. 
Pekin,  116. 
Penance,  85,  86. 

People,  peasants,  peasantrv,  97,  121, 
129,  137-139,  145,  146,  170,  174-176, 
179,  185,  187,  188,  190,  192,  106, 197, 
210.  211,  214-216,  221,  240,  24.?,  260, 
263',  2G4,  273,  277,  278,  283-287,  293. 

Peresvet,  30. 

Perm,  122,  213,  215,  28G. 

Peroun,  16,  19. 

Petcherski,  the,  23,  24,  29,  82,  1G3-1G5, 

167,  168. 
Peter,  Church  of  St.,  34,  07. 
Peter  III.,  133,  134,  268,  270,  273,  285. 
Peter,  Metropolitan,  28,  100. 
Peter  of  Kiev,  St.,  14. 
Peter,  Pretender,  73. 
Peter  the  (Jreat,  111,  114-118,  120- 

124,  126-128,  132,  134,  135,  137,  1.55, 

164,  166,  191-193,  195,  203,  254,  259, 

292,  293. 

Petersburg,  St.,  123,  157,  167,  178,  259, 

2G1,  267.  269,  272. 
Philaret,  Metropolitan,  83. 
Philaret  Uomanoff,  see  Komanoff. 
Philip,  Dissenter,  204. 
Philip,  .Saint  and  Martvr,  28,  oi-54, 

104,  154. 
Philipovitch,  Daniel,  253-256. 
Philipovtsi,  the,  204,  238. 
Photius,  Metropolitan.  .33. 
Photius,  Patriarch,  3-6,  14. 
Pictures,  the  .Sacred,  19,  72.  84,  90,  144, 

164,  168,  169,  235,  244,  270,  274,  275, 

278. 

Pil<;rims,  the,  see  Stranniki. 
Pimen,  30,  32. 
Pitirim,  99,  107. 
Pliasouni,  the,  288. 
Poissevin,  Anthony,  .55-57,  CG. 
Pojarskv,  Dimitri,  76. 
Pokloni',  235,  275. 

Poland,  Poles,  28,  ,30, 32,  37,  5.5.  0.5,  71- 
7G,  82.  91-9.3,  97,  111,  117,  122.  130, 
131,  163,  282;  persecution  in,  44,  45, 
CC-68,  70,  79-82,  80,  112,  128-130. 


Polish  Church,  see  Church. 

Polish  nationality,  226,  228,  229. 

Polotsk,  81,  128,  131. 

Polotsky,  Simon,  108. 

Pomortsi,  the  (Pomorians).  107, 221, 236. 

Pope,  the  (of  Kome),  2,  ,5, 10,  24,  34,  36, 

46,  55,  72,  117, 123,  141, 142, 156,  227, 

232. 

Popes  (priests)  and  priesthood,  7,  39, 44, 
57,  85-87,  105,  143, 147-150,  160, 161, 
170,  171,  176,  178,  216,  234,  237,  240, 
248,  288,  289;  education  of,  172,  173; 
marriage  of,  149, 160;  number  of,  172, 
177;  poverty  of,  174;  vices  of,  182, 
183;  of  Bezpopovtsi,  199,  200,  235; 
of  Edinovertsi,  231,  233 :  of  Popovtsi, 
198-200,  21,5,  219,  220,  224,  227,  229, 
297.   5ee  Clergy. 

Popovtsi,  the,  and  Popovtsism,  199, 

203,  217,  219,  221,  222,  234,  237,  247 ; 
distribution  of,  215;  organization  of, 
224,  227-231 ;  present  aspect  of,  233. 

Potchaief,  167. 
Pougatchev,  134,  243,  2C8. 
Pouschkine,  286. 
Poustvnia,  1G2. 

PraobVajeuski,  222-224,  237,  239,  241- 
243. 

Prayerless,  the,  see  Nyemolyaki. 
Pretenders:  Dimitri,  70-72;  Peter,  73. 
Printing,  50.  82,  187. 
Procession,  Double,  of  the  Iloly  Ghost, 

see  Ghost. 
Procopovitch,  Feofan,  123,  124,  126. 
Prophets,  Prophecies,  etc..  193, 194,  202, 

204,  206,  252,  238,  259,  262,  264,  266, 
285,  289. 

Protestant  churches,  132,  151. 
Protestant  clergy.  149.  178. 
Protestant  countries,  124,  216. 
Protestant  preaching,  117. 
Protestant  provinces,  214. 
Protestant  sects,  127,  147,  273,  270. 
Protestantism,  Protestants,  140, 14C,  147, 

149,  152,  179,  189,  214,  217,  218.  252, 

290,  291. 
Provincial  Synods,  158. 
I'russia,  218." 

Pskov,  28,  54,  73,  89,  110, 165, 182,  284. 

I'urgatorv,  35. 

Puritans,"  the,  200,  21G,  217. 

Q. 

Quakers,  117,  205,  251,  280. 
Quarrel,  those  who,  see  Ituzdorniki. 


\ 


308 


INDEX. 


R. 

Kadcnic,  207. 
Uadoiipjjl,  29. 

liagosa,  Mifhaol,  i\rctropolitan,  C7. 

Itangoiii,  Clau(lic),  70. 

liapliacl  of  Constantinople.  .W. 

Kaskol,  tlic,  179,  180,  184,  1S8-190, 
20;!,  205,  2M>,  240,  259,  205,  29:J- 
295;  socially  and  politically,  191-197, 
208;  danger  to,  198  ;  division  ol",  199; 
strength  of,  210-212;  distribution  of, 
214-217;  organization  of,  218-220, 
222,  225,  227,  229 ;  changes  in,  230, 
231.  233 ;  sects  apart  from,  248-251. 

RaskolniUs,  the,  134,  191,  194,  202,  220, 
221,  223,  270,  274,  275,  282,  283,  295- 
297;  numbers  of,  208-210;  moralitvof, 
211,212,241;  relaxation  of,  213,214; 
children  of,  247,  248. 

Kationalistic  Sects,  252,  273,  276. 

Katuzhny,  Michael,  290. 

Kavenna,  1. 

IJazdornilii,  the,  230. 

Kebaptism,  79,  127. 

Eeconciliatioii  of  Dissenters,  203,  229, 
230. 

Redeemer,  the,  289,  290. 

Keform  in  Russian  Church,  20,  32,  44, 49, 
77-79,  87,  90,  91,  104,  111,  133,  178, 
187,  188;  in  parish  clergy,  177,  178; 
recent,  24G-248,  292.  29G;  among  the 
Khlysti,  208;  by  Nilion,  90,  91,  94, 
187,"  188,  192;  bv  I'eter  the  Creat, 
117-121,  121,  127,  133,  100,  192-194. 

Regulation,  the  Spiritual,  125. 

lieligious  element  in  Russia,  the,  iv.,  19, 
39,  68,  70,  113,  137-139,  143,  104, 175, 
184,  185,  190,  194,  197,  200,  210,  273, 
283,  280,  287,  293. 

Rcmarryiug,  the,  see  Novozsheny. 

lieorganization  of  the  Cliurcli,  the,  under 
Vassili  nr.,  37,  38;  under  Feodor  I., 
63,  64 ;  under  Peter  the  Great,  124- 
120. 

Repnine,  130. 

Rliodes,  00. 

Riazan,  33,  .37,  72,  118,  262. 
Ritualists,  Old,  188, 192,  232. 
Rogojski,  222-224,  227-229,  237.  239. 
Romanoff.  Alexis,  08,  87-89.  91,  97,  98, 
102,  103,  100  108,  155,  231,  236,  293. 
Romanoff,  Anastasia,  48,  70. 
Romanoff  Kamily,  the,  70,76. 
Romanoff,  Micli.iel,  70  -78,  86,  97,  155. 
Romanoff,  Pliilaret,  70, 71,  74,77-80,  90. 


Rome,  1-3,  5,  10,  13,  15,  25,  26,  28,  34, 
36,  37,  42,  63,  117, 139,  140,  227,  232, 
250. 

Rostov,  42,  58,  63,  71,74,  100,  119,  180. 
Rouble,  the,  174  and  ytole,  223. 
Riiric,  14,  19,  50,  68,  130. 
Russians,  Old,  192,  190,  211,  225. 

S. 

"Sabaoth."  254,  255,  2.58. 
Sabbatarian.s,  the,  see  Soiibbotniki. 
.Sabbath,  the,  4,  282. 
Sacraments,  the,  85,  86,  145,  149,  200, 

237,  274-276,  288,  290. 
Saints,  lives  of  the,  120. 
Salominn,  47. 

Saltan,  Jo.scph,  Metropolitan  of  Kiev, 

45,  06,  81. 
Samuclovitch,  112. 
Saratov,  288. 
Sarmatia,  15. 

Saviour,  the,  189,  205,  205,  267,  268, 

270,  279. 
Scepticism,  139,  200. 
.Schism  of  A.i).  1054,  1,  4,  6,  24. 
Schools,  20,  41,  43,  08,  80-83,  111,  121, 

133,  134,  159;  for -wliite  clergy,  170, 

172,  173,  178;  for  Raskoluiks,  213, 

290. 

.Scriptures,  the,  .w  Rible. 
Secidarization  of  Church  property,  44, 

119,  131,  108. 
Selivanov,  Andrei,  207-270,  272,  273, 

285,  280. 
Senate,  the,  124. 

Sensual  excitement,  257-259,  201,  262. 

Seraphim,  284,  288. 

Serfdom,  68,  155,  170,  205,  246,  286, 

287,  292. 
Sergius,  Monk,  109. 
Sergius,  St.,  20,  30,  74. 
Shakers,  the,  258,  280. 
Shakouni,  the,  201,  262,  288. 
Shorn,  the,  see  Strijenisti. 
.Shouesky,  Vassili,  Tsar,  73-75. 
Siberia, '79,  91,  90,  110,  122,  177,  204, 

205,  214,  215,  240,  268,  209,  271,  292. 
.Siemasko,  Joseph,  131. 
Sighing  Ones,  the,  see  Vozdonkhantsi. 
Sigismund  of  Poland,  60,  07,  70,  80,  81. 
Simeon  of  Constantinople,  59. 
Simon  Ivanovitch,  82. 
Simon,  Metropolitan,  44. 
Siujonov  INIonastery,  the,  163. 
Siiiai,  67,  101. 


INDEX. 


309 


Skeet,  see  Hermitages. 
Skoptsi,  the,  253,  264-273,  283,  285,  289, 
294. 

Slavs,  Slavonic,  143,  173,  214,  243  ;  con- 
version of,  15,  19;  race,  139,  140; 
figures,  194,  note;  empires,  227. 

Slovenio,  the,  G9. 

Smolensk,  2G3. 

Sobiesky,  John,  112,  128. 

Sojigateli.  the,  204. 

Solomon,  183,  2G2,  275. 

Solovetsk,  Convent  of,  74,  88,  107,  163- 
ICo,  236,  282. 

Sohyk  of  Cracow,  130. 

Sophia,  Church  of  St.,  C. 

Sopliia,  Cathedral  of  St.,  at  Kiev,  81. 

Sophia,  Kegent,  111,  114. 

Sophia,  Tsarina,  42,  45. 

Sorbonne,  the,  123. 

Souhbotniki,  the,  282,  294. 

Soiislov,  Ivan  Timofeievitch,  254,  255, 
258,  285. 

Souzdal,  74,  181,  209. 

Spain,  2,  3. 

Spirit,  the  Holy,  84,  190,  253,  271-273, 
285. 

Spiritual  College,  the,  125 ;  Regulation, 

tlie,  125. 
Stanislas  of  Poland,  129,  130. 
Staradoiib,  217. 
Staritza,  Jfonastcry  of,  71. 
Staroe,  255. 

Staroobriadtsi,  the,  188. 
Staroveri,  tlie,  see  Old  Ritualists. 
Stavropigia,  1U2,  1G7. 
Stephen,  St.,  32. 

Slranglcrs,  tlie,  tee  Tioukalstchiki. 
Stranniki,  the,  195,  238,  242-246,  205, 
294. 

Strannoprceimtsi,  the,  see  Stranniki. 
Streltsi,  the,  113,  114. 
Strigohiiki,  the,  181-183. 
Strijcnisti,  the,  284. 
Studium  Monastery,  the,  23. 
Stundists,  the,  290,  291. 
Sundays,  127,282,  288. 
Sviatoslav,  10. 

Sweden,  Swedes,  2G,  GG,  73,  74,  76,  90, 
163, 164. 

Sylvester,  Jfonk,  49,  51. 

.Sylvester  of  Jlogilev,  128. 

Synod,  General,  85 ;  Most  Holy :  estab- 
lishment of,  125,  12G;  receives  back 
the  Unia,  131,  132;  is  intolerant,  l.J-.'; 
character  of,  135 ;  not  infallible,  142 ; 


may  cancel  priests'  vows,  150 :  final 
form  of  Church  government,  153, 155 ; 
logical  form  of,  15G;  composition,  du- 
ties, etc.,  of,  157-159;  control  by,  16G, 
l<i7,  174;  proto  -  popes,  172;  eon- 
(li-miied  by  IJezpopovtsi,  203 ;  reports 
of.  209;  conciliates  Raskolniks,  230; 
Edinovertsi,  231 ;  Provincial  Svnods, 
158. 

T. 

Taciturn,  the,  see  Moltchalniki. 
Tambov,  288. 
Tamerlane,  32. 

Tatars,  invasions  of,  25,  153,  163,  164; 
protect  the  Church,  26,  27, 105,154; 
set  aside  the  dynasty  of  Ivan  Kalita, 
29;  Dimitri  Donskoi  defeats  the,  30, 
31;  under  Mamai  and  Toktamuish, 
31;  under  Tamerlane,  32,  33;  libera- 
tion from  the,  39 ;  effect  of  their  rule, 
40,  41;  Ivan  III.  defeats  the,  42,  43; 
Godounov  defeats  the,  65,  70 ;  Cross 
aixl  Crescent,  96 ;  mosques  of  the,  132. 

Tchislenniki,  the,  288. 

Teutonic  Knights,  the,  25. 

Theophancs  of  Jerusalem,  77,  78, 80,  81. 

Thcoptus  of  Constantinople,  60. 

Therapontoff  Jlonastery,  tlie,  104. 

Thessalonica,  33. 

Thomas  a  Hcckct,  88. 

Thursdav,  IIolv,  200. 

Tiber,  tlie,  1.3." 

Timothy,  178. 

Tioukalstchiki,  the,  204. 

Tirkhanov,  Ivan,  290. 

Tobacco,  IIG,  191,  235. 

Toktamuish,  .31,  32. 

Toleration :  Peter  the  Great's  manifesto, 
121;  under  Peter  III.,  133;  under 
Catherine  II.,  134;  general,  238,  296. 

Touschina,  74. 

Transubstantiation,  85, 116. 

Tribunal,  see  Court. 

Trinity,  the,  84;  Monastery  of  the,  see 
Troitsa. 

TroUsa,  Monastery  of  the,  79,  106; 
foundation  and  growth  of  the,  29,30; 
patriotism  of  the,  74-70;  placed  un- 
der the  patriarch,  78;  protects  Peter 
the  Great,  114;  wealth  of  the,  119; 
size  of  the,  163;  veneration  for  the, 
104,  1G5, 108,  called  Lavra,  107;  holy 
picture  in  the,  289;  Town  of,  288. 

Trophimovitch,  Isaiah,  82. 


310 


INDEX. 


Tsar,  2G9,  280,  284;  title  of,  48,  239; 

prnvers  for,  G9,  23G,  239. 
TurkoV,  TiirUs,  34,  65,  82,  83,  112,  139, 

21.H,'227,  228,  277, 
Tvarilciiov,  Dimitri,  277. 
Tver,  31,73, 

U. 

Ukraine,  tlio,  8G,  97, 112,  134,  217. 

Unclean  food,  74, 191,  235. 

Unction  of  the  sick,  8G. 

Unia,  the,  37,  70,  111,  131,  132,  190,  232. 

Uniate  Believers,  see  Edinovcrtsi. 

Uniates,  the,  G8,  80,  81,  123,  128,  129, 
131,  132,  107. 

Union,  act  of,  35,  42  ;  of  Greek  and 
Latin  Cliiirches,  5G,  117, 123;  of  Po- 
lish and  Koman  Churches,  67  ;  of 
English  and  Hussian  Churches,  124, 
12G;  of  Uniate  and  Orthodox  Church- 
es, 131,  132. 

Unitv  of  the  Godhead,  268,  277,  283. 

Ural" Mountains,  the,  32,  204,  213-215, 
217;  Kiver,  215. 

Uspenski,  see  Assumption. 

V. 

Valdai,  Lake  of,  89,  164. 
Varagians,  the,  14,  16. 
Varvara,  St.,  287. 
Vassian  of  Kolomna.  50. 
Vassian  of  Rostov,  42,  43. 
Vassili  11.,  32. 
Vassili  III.,  33,  34,  3G. 
Vassili  IV.,  45-47,  94,  186. 
Vassili  Shouesky,  73-75. 
Vassiliev,  Oidiana,  255. 
Veronica,  St.,  200. 
Vetka,  217. 
A^ienna,  117. 
Vishnu,  254. 
Vitoft  of  Poland,  32,  33. 
Vladimir,  City  of,  27,  29,  CI,  62, 165. 
Vladimir  II.,  Monomachus,  24. 
Vladimir,  Province  of,  254. 
Vladimir  the  Great,  16-20,  22,  78,  105. 
Vladislas  IV.,  of  Poland,  75,  76,  81,  82, 
86. 


\na.s,  St.,  138. 

V(df;a,  the,  26,  109,  122,  134,  215,  253. 
VoUiymnia,  167. 
Volkov,  the,  182. 
Vologda,  215. 

Volukamsk,  Monastery  of,  184. 
Voltaire,  134,  230,  26o". 
Voronegc,  121. 

Voskresenski  Monastcrv,  the,  101,  109, 
164. 

Vozdonkhantsi,  the,  290. 

Vyg,  the,  127,  215,  221,  236,  239. 

Vygorctsk,  Convent  of,  215,  221,  236. 

W. 

Walachia,  60,  101. 
Wanderers,  tlie,  see  Stranniki. 
Warsaw,  Diet  of,  82,  129,  130. 
West  and  East,  see  East. 
Whip,  253. 

White  Clergy,  the,  see  Clergy. 

White  Doves,  the,  see  Skoptsi. 

White  Lake,  the,  104. 

White  Kussia,  129,  131,  206. 

White  Sea,  the,  88,  107,  122,  104,  215, 

221,  236,  282. 
White  Tsar,  the,  193,  269,  280. 
Wilna,  67. 

Wives  of  priests,  176. 

Wolspy,  88. 

Word,  the,  see  Bible. 

Y. 

Yanovsky,  Feodoeci',  126. 
Yaroslav,  City  of,  109. 
Yaroslav,  Province  of,  243. 
Yaroslav  the  Great,  22-24. 
Yavorskv,  Stephen,  118,  120,  122-124, 
126. 

Y'awneri!,  the,  200. 

Z. 

Zaehariah,  Heretic,  183. 
Zahisski  of  Kiev,  130. 
Zishka,  Leo,  128. 
Ziuzin,  Nikita,  100. 
Zlotooust,  288. 

Zosimos,  Metropolitan,  43,  44,  184. 


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MOTLEY'S  UNITED  NETHERLANDS.  History  of  the  United 
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MOTLEY'S  JOHN  OF  BARNEVELD.  The  Life  and  Death  of  John 
of  Barneveld,  Advocate  of  Holland.  With  a  View  of  the  Primary 
Causes  and  JMovements  of  tlie  "Thirty  Y'ears'  War."  By  John 
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HILDRETH'S  UNITED  STATES.  History  of  the  United  States. 
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ica. By  Henry  Cabot  Lodge.  New  and  Revised  Edition.  8vo, 
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TREVELYAN'S  LIFE  OF  MACAULAY.  The  Life  and  Letters  of 
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WRITINGS  AND  SPEECHES  OF  SAMUEL  J.  TILDEN.  Edited 
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LIFE  AND  TIMES  OF  THE  REV.  SYDNEY  SMITH.  A  Sketch 
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STORMONTirS  ENGLISH  DICTIONARY.  A  Dictionary  of  the 
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embracing  Scientific  and  other  Terms,  Numerous  Familiar  Tcrin.s, 
and  a  Cojiious  Selection  of  Old  English  Words.  By  the  Rev.  Jamks 
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4 


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LOSSINGS  CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 
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of  the  History,  Biograpliy,  Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  tho 
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MULLER'S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  RECENT  TIMES  (1816- 
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to  1881,  by  the  Rev.  John  P.  Peteus,  Ph.D.    I2ino,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

STANLEY'S  THROUGH  THE  DARK  CONTINENT.  Through 
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Lakes  of  Equatorial  Africa,  and  Down  the  Livingstone  River  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  149  Illustrations  and  10  Maps.  By  II.  M.  Stan- 
let.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $10  00;  Sheep,  $12  00;  Half  Morocco, 
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Full-page  and  smaller  Illustrations,  Two  Large  Maps,  and  several 
smaller  ones.  By  H.  M.  Stanley.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $10  00; 
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5 


ENGLISH  MEN  OF  LETTERS.     Edited  by  John  Morlet. 
The  following  volumes  are  now  ready.    Others  will  follow : 

JoDNSoy.  liy  L.  Stephen. — GiBno>r.  By  J.  C.  llorison. — Scott.  Hy  R.  H.  Hut- 
ton.— Shellei-.  By  J.  A.  Syniouds. — Goldsmith.  By  W.  Black. — Hime.  By  Pro- 
fessor Hu.xley. — Defoe.  By  W.  Minto.  — Brnxs.  By  Principal  Sliairp. — Spexskb. 
Dy  R.W.  Church.— Thackeray.  By  A.  TroUope.— Burke.  By  J.  Morley.— Milton. 
By  M.  Pattison.— Southey.  By  E.  Dowden.— Chancer.  By  A.  W.  Ward. — Buxyan. 
By  J.  A.  Froude.— CowPER.  By  G.  Smilh.— Pope.  By  L.  Stephen. — Byrox.  By 
J.  Nichols.  —  Locke.  By  T.  Fowler.  —  Wordsworth.  By  F.  W.  H.  Slyers  - Haw- 
THORXE.    By  Henry  James,  Jr. — Drydex.    By  G.  Saiutsbury. — Laxdor.    By  S.  Col- 

vin. — De  QiixcEY.    By  I).  Masson  Lamb.    By  A.  Ainger.  — Bextley.    By  K.  C. 

Jebb.— DiCKEXS.  By  A.  W.  Ward.— Gray.  By  E.  W  Gosse.— Swift.  By  L.  Stephen. 
— Sterxe.  By  H.  D.  Traill. — Macacl^iy.  By  J.  C.  llorison —Fieldixg.  ByA.  Dob- 
Bon. — SHERID.IX.  By  Mr.s.  Oliphant. — .^ddiso.v.  By  W.  J.  Courthope. — Bacox.  By 
R.  W.  Church.— COLERIDUE.  By  H.  D.  Traill.— Sir  Philip  Sidxey.  By  J.  A.  Sy- 
monds.    12mo,  Cloth,  75  cents  per  volume. 

EEBERS  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  ART.  History  of  Ancient 
Art.  By  Dr.  Franz  ton  Keder.  Revised  by  the  Author.  Trans- 
lated and  Augmented  by  Joseph  Th.acher  Clarke.  With  310  Illus- 
trations and  a  Glossary  of  Technical  Terms.    8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

REBER'S  MEDIAEVAL  ART.  History  of  Medixval  Art.  By  Dr. 
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Clarke.  AVith  422  Iliustiaiions,  and  a  Glossary  of  Technical  Terms. 
8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

NEWCOMB'S  ASTRONOMY.  Popular  Astronomy.  By  Simon 
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8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50;  School  Edition,  12mo,  Cloth,  $1  30. 

VAN-LENNE1"S  BIBLE  LANDS.  Bible  Lands:  their  Modern  Cus- 
toms and  Manners  Illustrative  of  Scripture.  By  Henry  J.  Van- 
Lennei*,  D.D.  350  Engravings  and  2  Colored  Maps.  8vo,  Cloth, 
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CESNOLA'S  CYPRUS.  Cyprus:  its  Ancient  Cities,  Tombs,  and 
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Years'  Residence  in  that  Island.  By  L.  P.  di  Cesnola.  With 
Portrait,  Maps,  and  400  Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  Extra,  Uncut 
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TENNYSON'S  COMPLETE  POEMS.  The  Complete  Poetical  Works 
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SHORT'S  NORTH  AMERICANS  OF  ANTIQUITY.  The  North 
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Civilization  Considered.  By  John  T.  Short.  Illustrated.  8vo, 
Cloth,  $3  00. 


6 


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BAKER'S  ISMAILIA  :  a  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  to  Central  Af- 
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LIVINGSTONE'S  ZAMBESI.  Narrative  of  an  E.xpedition  to  the 
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ingstone. Illustrated.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00;  Sheep,  $5  50;  Half 
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LIVINGSTONE  S  LAST  JOURNALS.  The  Last  Journals  of  Da- 
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BLAIKIE'S  LIFE  OF  DAVID  LIVINGSTONE.  Memoir  of  his 
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"  THE  FRIENDLY  EDITION  "  of  Shakespeare's  Works.  Edited  by 
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GIESELER'S  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  A  Text -Book  of 
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the  Fourth  Revised  German  Edition.  Revised  and  Edited  by  Rev. 
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COLERIDGE'S  WORKS.  The  Complete  Works  of  Samuel  Taylor 
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7 


GRIFFIS'S  JAPAN.  The  Mikado's  Empire:  Book  I.  History  of 
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Observations,  and  Studies  in  Japan,  from  1870  to  1874.  With  Two 
Siipjilementary  Chapters:  J.ipan  in  1883,  and  Japan  in  1880.  By 
W.  E.  GitiFFis.  Copiously  Illustrated.  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00 ;  Half  Calf, 
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SMILES'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  HUGUENOTS.  The  Huguenots: 
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By  Samuel  Smiles.  With  an  Appendix  relating  to  the  Iliiguenots 
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SMILES'S  HUGUENOTS  AFTER  THE  REVOCATION.  The  Hu- 
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a  Visit  to  the  Country  of  the  Vaudois.  By  Samuel  Smiles.  Crown 
8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

SMILES'S  LIFE  OF  THE  STEPHENSONS.  The  Life  of  George 
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History  of  the  Invention  and  Introduction  of  the  Railway  Locomo- 
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THE  POETS  AND  POETRY  OF  SCOTLAND :  From  the  Earliest 
to  the  Present  Time.  Comprising  Characteristic  Selections  from 
the  Works  of  the  more  Noteworthy  Scottish  Poets,  with  Biographi- 
cal and  Critical  Notices.  By  James  Grant  Wilson.  With  Por- 
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SCIILIEMANN'S  ILIOS.  Ilios,  the  City  and  Country  of  the  Trojans. 
A  Narrative  of  the  Most  Recent  Discoveries  and  Researches  made 
on  the  Plain  of  Troy.  By  Dr.  IIenky  Sciilikmann.  Maps,  Plans, 
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SCHLIEMANN'S  TROJA.  Troja.  Results  of  the  Latest  Researches 
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muli and  other  Sites,  made  in  the  Year  1882,  and  a  Narrative  of  a 
Journey  in  the  Troad  in  1881.  By  Dr.  IIkniiy  Sciilikmann.  Pref- 
ace by  Professor  A.  H.  Sayce.  With  Wood-cuts,  Maps,  and  Plans. 
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SCHWEINFURTII  S  HEART  OF  AFRICA.  Three  Years'  Travels 
and  Ailvcntures  in  the  Unexplored  Regions  of  tiie  Centre  of  Africa — 
from  18G8  to  1871.  V>y  Geokg  Schweinfuhth.  Translated  by 
Ellen  E.  Freweu.    Illustrated.    2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $8  00. 

NORTON'S  STUDIES  OF  CHURCH-BUILDING.  Historical  Stud- 
ies of  Church-Building  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Venice,  Siena,  Flor- 
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8 


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THE  VOYAGE  OF  THE  "CHALLENGER."  The  Atlantic:  an 
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Early  Tart  of  1870.  By  Sir  Wyville  Tuomsos,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S. 
Illustrated.    2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

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TAMENT  History. — New  Testament  History. — Strickland's 
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lam's  Middle  Ages.  —  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of 
England. —  Lyell's  Elements  of  Geology. —  Merivale's  Gen- 
eral History  of  Rome.  —  Cox's  General  History  of  Greece. 
— Classical  Dictionary. — Skeat's  Etymological  Dictionary. — 
Rawlinsos's  Ancient  History.    $1  25  per  volume. 

Lewis's  History  of  Germany. — Ecclesiastical  History,  Two 
Vols. — Hcme's  England. — Modern  Eukoi-e.    $1  50  per  volume. 
Westcott  and  Hout's  Greek  Testament,  $1  00. 

THOMSON'S  SOUTHERN  PALESTINE  AND  JERUSALEM. 
Southern  Palestine  and  Jerusalem.  Biblical  Illustrations  drawn 
from  the  Manners  and  Customs,  the  Scenes  and  Scenery,  of  the 
Holy  Land.  By  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.  140  Illustrations  and 
Mai)s.  Square  Svo,  Cloth,  $G  00;  Sheep,  $7  00;  Half  Morocco, 
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THOMSON'S  CENTRAL  PALESTINE  AND  PHCENICIA.  Cen- 
tral Palestine  and  Phoenicia.  Biblical  Illustrations  drawn  from  the 
Manners  and  Customs,  the  Scenes  and  Scenery,  of  the  Holy  Land. 
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THOMSON'S  LEBANON,  DAMASCUS,  AND  BEYOND  JORDAN. 
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from  the  Manners  and  Customs,  the  Scenes  and  Scenery,  of  the  Holy 
Land.  By  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.  147  Illustrations  and  Maps. 
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EATON'S  CIVIL  SERVICE.  Civil  Service  in  Great  Britain.  A 
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Politics.    By  Dorman  B.  Eaton.    Svo,  Cloth,  §2  50. 


Valuable  Works  for  Public  and  Private  Libraries. 


9 


CAMERON'S  ACROSS  AFRICA.  Across  Africa.  By  Vernet  Loy- 
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CARLYLE'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  History  of  Friedrich 
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CARLYLE  S  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  The  French  Revolution : 
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CARLYLES  OLIVER  CROMWELL.  Oliver  Cromwell's  Letters 
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PAST  AND  PRESENT,  CHARTISM,  AND  SARTOR  RESARTUS. 
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EARLY  KINGS  OF  NORWAY,  AND  THE  PORTRAITS  OF  JOHN 
KNOX.    By  Thomas  Carlyle.    l2mo.  Cloth,  $I  25. 

REMINISCENCES  BY  THOMAS  CARLYLE.  Edited  hy  J.  A. 
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FROUDE'S  LIFE  OF  THOMAS  CARLYLE.  Part  I.  A  History 
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Part  II.  A  History  of  Carlyle's  Life  in  London  (1834-1881 ).  By 
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Cloth,  $1  00. 

M'CAllTIIY'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  A  History  of  Our  Own 
Times,  from  the  Accession  of  Queen  Victoria  to  the  General  Elec- 
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M'CARTHY'S  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  OUR  OWN  TIMES.  A 
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toria to  the  General  Election  of  1880.  By  Justin  M'CAKrHv,  M  P. 
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M'CARTHY'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  FOUR  GEORGES.  A  History 
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ABBOTTS  NAPOLEON.  The  History  of  Nnpolcon  Bonaparte. 
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ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA.  Napoleon  at  St. 
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the  Years  of  his  Ca])tivity.  Collected  from  the  Memorials  of  Las 
Casas,  O'Meara,  Montholon,  Antommarchi,  and  others.  By  John 
S.  C.  Abbott.  Illustrated.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00  ;  Sheep,  $5  50  ;  Half 
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ABBOTT  S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  The  History  of  Frederick 
the  Second,  called  Frederick  the  Great.  By  John  S.  C.  Abbott. 
Illustrated.    8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00;  Half  Calf,  $7  25. 

TROLLOPE'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.  An  Autohiography.  By  An- 
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TROLLOPE'S  CICERO.  Life  of  Cicero.  By  Anthony  Trollope. 
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FOLK-LORE  OF  SHAKESPEARE.  By  the  Rev.  T.  F.  Thiselton 
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WATSON'S  MARCUS  AURELIUS  ANTONINUS.  Marcus  Anreli- 
us  Antoninus.  By  Paul  Barron  Watson.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth, 
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THOMSON'S  THE  GREAT  ARGUMENT.  The  Great  Argument ; 
or,  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Old  Testament.  By  W.  II.  Tuomsox,  M.A., 
M.D.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

HUDSON'S  HISTORY  OF  JOURNALISM.  Journalism  in  the  United 
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SHELDON'S  HISTORY  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE.  History 
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tory in  Boston  University.    2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50  per  set. 

DEXTER'S  CONGREGATIONALISM.  The  Congregationalism  of 
the  Last  Three  Hundred  Years,  as  Seen  in  its  Literature:  with 
Special  Reference  to  certain  Recondite,  Neglected,  or  Disputed 
Passages.  With  a  Bibliographical  Appendi.\.  By  H.  M.  Dexter. 
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